Medieval Europe and the Rise of Islam: Politics, Economy, and Society

Posted on Jan 25, 2025 in Geography

Byzantine Empire

Government: The Basileus (Byzantine Emperor) held sacred, absolute power, aided by civil servants.

Administration: Provinces were headed by a political and military leader, supported by cavalry and a navy.

Economy:

  • Agriculture: Based on latifundia (large estates).
  • Crafts: Production of luxury items like silk fabrics, carpets, jewelry, and enamels.
  • Commerce: Benefited from a strategic position between Europe and Asia, and the Mediterranean and Black Seas. Traded silk from China, spices and ivory from India, and skins and wheat from Europe.

Society:

  • Upper level: Aristocracy and high clergy, who owned latifundia and held important positions.
  • Middle level: Clergy, civil servants, businessmen, and free farmers.
  • Lower level: Serfs and slaves.

Visigoths

Political Organization: Elective monarchy, often leading to fights for succession. The king was advised by the Aula Regia, an organization composed of nobles and high clergy.

Economy: Centered on agriculture, particularly grains, grapevines, and olive trees, cultivated on the latifundia of the nobility and the Church.

Society: Headed by a wealthy minority of nobles, bishops, and abbots, ruling over peasants (small landowners, settlers, or serfs), craftsmen, and merchants.

Culture: Primarily in the hands of the Church. Notable figure: St. Isidore of Seville, author of Etymologies (6th century), a summary of the knowledge of his time.

Carolingian Empire

Political Organization: Emperor ruled over counties, run by counts, and marches (borderland provinces run by marquises).

Economy: Agrarian activities, including grains and livestock, on the latifundia of the aristocracy and the Church. Urban activities like crafts and commerce declined.

Society:

  • High position: Nobles and clergy, who owned land and held important positions.
  • Middle level: Free farmers, craftsmen, and merchants.
  • Lower group: Serfs, tied to the land.

Culture and Art: Experienced a Carolingian Renaissance, centered around the Palace School of Aachen, which served as an administrative residence and included the Palatine Chapel (8th-10th centuries). Notable examples include architecture (palaces, churches, monasteries), sculpture (e.g., Charlemagne on horseback), and smaller works like reliquaries and chests in ivory, enamel, and metal, as well as miniatures (small paintings on parchment illustrating Gospels).

The Birth of Islam

Arabia Before and After Muhammad: The Arabian Peninsula was a desert territory bordered by the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf. It was home to rival tribes: inland nomadic tribes engaged in livestock farming and practicing fetishism, and coastal sedentary tribes involved in farming and trade, practicing polytheism. Common elements included language and worship at the Kaaba. Main cities were Mecca and Medina.

Muhammad: Born in 570 in Mecca, Muhammad worked as a merchant. While meditating on Mount Hira, he experienced a revelation from the archangel Gabriel. He began to preach a new religion, Islam, centered around the single god Allah. He believed that Arabs would be united under Islam after his death in 632.

Islamic Religion:

  • Muslims: Followers of Islam, believing in Allah as the single god and Muhammad as his prophet.
  • Koran: The sacred book of Muslims, containing verses of Allah’s teachings as recited by Muhammad, made up of 114 suras.
  • Sunnah: Traditions based on the Prophet’s sayings and actions.
  • Holy Places: The Kaaba in Mecca, the Mosque of the Prophet in Medina, and the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem.
  • Religious Precepts (Pillars of Islam):
    • Testament of faith in Allah and Muhammad.
    • Prayer five times a day, facing Mecca, and on Fridays at the mosque.
    • Alms for those in need.
    • Fasting during Ramadan, from sunrise to sunset.
    • Pilgrimage to Mecca, at least once in a lifetime.
  • Rules on Behavior: Polygamy is permitted. Alcohol, pork, and gambling are forbidden. Principles include equality, tolerance, brotherhood, and unity.

The Expansion of Islam

Beginnings:

  • 622: Muhammad escaped from Mecca to Medina, an event known as the Hegira, marking the start of the Muslim calendar. He became a political and religious leader.
  • 632: Muhammad died, by which time almost all of Arabia was Muslim.

Creation of a Great Empire:

  • Muslim Expansion (7th-8th centuries): Driven by the desire to spread the faith (“jihad”), the organization of the army, the urge to obtain booty, and the weakness of enemies.
  • Orthodox Caliphate (632-661): Successors were relatives of Muhammad, residing in Medina. Annexed Syria, Egypt, North Africa, Mesopotamia, and Persia.
  • Umayyad Caliphate (661-750): The Umayyad family ruled the Muslim Empire from Damascus, extending it from the Iberian Peninsula to the Indus Valley.
  • Abbasid Caliphate (750-1258): A new dynasty moved the capital to Baghdad. The Mongolians took the city in 1258, marking the end of the Muslim expansion.

Organization of Conquered Land:

  • Government: The Caliph, the supreme religious, political, and military authority in Islam, was assisted by the Vizier, a prime minister who directed the administration.
  • Administration: The Emir, a governor, controlled each province, while the Kadi, a judge, administered justice.
  • Taxes: Territorial taxes on land and personal taxes based on religion.

Economic Activities

New Farming Practices:

  • Agriculture was the basis of the Muslim economy, with nomadic farming in the desert.
  • Variety of Crops: Wheat, rice, cotton, sugarcane, mulberry, citrus fruits (oranges and lemons), and vegetables (spinach and eggplant).
  • Farming Techniques: Irrigation systems using waterwheels for extraction, ditches for distribution, and wells and cisterns for storage. Terraces were used for cultivating slopes.
  • Property of Land: Original owners retained their land in exchange for taxes. Conquered estates were shared between the Caliph (1/5) and the aristocracy.

Crafts and Trade (in cities):

  • Crafts: Small workshops produced cotton and linen fabrics, carpets, leather goods, ceramics, metalwork, perfumes, and paper.
  • Commerce: Benefited from a strategic position between the West and East, using camel convoys and sailboats. Main routes connected the Mediterranean Sea, the Indian Ocean, inland Africa, the Far East (China and India), and Northern Europe. Traded luxury items like metals, hides, silks, fabrics, spices, and slaves. Payment methods included gold coins (dinars) and bills of exchange.

Society and the Muslim City

Social Organization:

  • Diversity: Different ethnicities (Arabs, Berbers, and Slavs) and religions (Islam, Christianity, and Judaism), but with three basic groups.
  • Aristocracy: A small group of Arab origin holding property and high positions in government.
  • Masses: Included peasants, craftsmen, and traders. Mawali were those who had converted to Islam, while Dhimmi were Christians and Jews who maintained their religion and customs but paid more taxes.
  • Slaves: Prisoners of war or individuals acquired through trade.

Muslim City:

  • Served as political, economic, religious, and cultural centers. They were walled, with an irregular layout and narrow streets.
  • Medina (central nucleus): Within the walls, it included the citadel (a fortified area on the highest point) and districts (with doors). Main buildings and spaces included:
    • Mosque: A religious place for communal prayer on Fridays, also serving as the office of the Kadi and a Koranic school.
    • Marketplace: A public area where craftsmen sold their goods, with a variety of shops.
    • Public Baths: Consisted of halls with warm, hot, and cold water, for both men and women.
    • Granaries: Large constructions where merchandise was stored and merchants stayed.
  • Suburbs (outer): Neighborhoods outside the walled area for people with lower incomes. Beyond them were recreational estates for wealthier citizens.