Medieval Europe: Cities, Society, and Gothic Art
Medieval Walled Cities: Life Inside
Medieval cities were typically protected by walls. Inside, the layout could be messy, with buildings seemingly piled together. Important structures were often located centrally, surrounded by homes, religious buildings, and schools. Streets were narrow, dirty, poorly paved, and lacked sewers, leading to low hygiene and infestations (like rats).
The Bourgeoisie: A New Social Class (11th Century)
Following the growth of cities from the 11th century onwards, a privileged social group called the bourgeoisie emerged. They lived in cities, often referred to as Burgos. These cities were frequently situated near rivers, ports, or crossroads, making them vital centers. The bourgeoisie primarily engaged in craftsmanship and commerce. Based on their earnings, they were distinguished into:
- High Bourgeoisie: Wealthier merchants and master craftsmen.
- Petty Bourgeoisie: Smaller shopkeepers and artisans.
Governing Medieval Cities
Initially, assemblies of all neighbors were held to organize city government. Later, judges led by a mayor were elected, meeting at the City Hall. Over time, the wealthiest families formed a favored group known as the urban patricians.
Royal Power and Urban Growth (12th Century Onwards)
From the 12th century, kings began to assert more power over feudal lords. Some monarchs supported the bourgeoisie by granting letters of privilege (permits allowing free trade and market establishment). In return, the bourgeois provided financial support to kings for their conflicts with the nobility. The efforts of some monarchies to establish clear borders led to clashes between European monarchs, such as the Hundred Years’ War between France and England (won by France).
Crisis in the 14th Century
The early 14th century saw a crisis triggered by a series of bad harvests and wars between feudal lords. The most devastating period occurred when the Black Death struck Europe, causing massive mortality.
Impact of the Crisis
- In the countryside: Population decline led to labor shortages, causing many fields to be abandoned. Food shortages and rising prices resulted in social unrest and tensions.
- In the cities: Riots occurred in major cities like Barcelona, Florence, and Paris due to widespread hardship.
Agricultural Advancements (11th Century Onwards)
Starting in the 11th century, several technical innovations boosted agriculture:
- New Cultivation Techniques: Three-field crop rotation and the use of manure (animal dung) as fertilizer.
- New Agricultural Implements: The Norman plough, horseshoes, and improved watermills and windmills.
Population Boom and Urbanization (12th-14th Centuries)
Between the 12th and 14th centuries, these agricultural developments led to increased productivity (better crops), contributing to a significant population increase in Europe, from approximately 45 million to 75 million people.
The improvement in agriculture spurred the growth of cities. Farmers produced more than they needed, generating a surplus. Landowners sought markets to sell this surplus. Population growth also encouraged emigration from rural areas to towns.
Craftsmen, Guilds, and Workshops
Artisans practicing the same trade often grouped together on specific streets. They worked manually in small workshops. Artisans within each trade organized into guilds, which had a well-structured hierarchy:
- Apprentices: Learners training under a master.
- Journeymen: Skilled workers employed by masters.
- Masters: Experienced artisans who owned workshops and trained apprentices.
Guilds established strict rules regarding working hours, tools used, product quality, and pricing to maintain standards and control competition.
Medieval Trade: Markets, Fairs, and Routes
- Market: Held weekly, primarily for exchanging local agricultural products and crafts.
- Fair: Large-scale markets held periodically (often annually), attracting merchants from wider regions.
- Hansa (Hanseatic League): An influential association of merchant guilds and market towns in Northern Europe (including areas like Denmark, Norway, Sweden).
- Trade Routes: Maritime routes were crucial as they were faster and allowed for greater cargo capacity.
- Route of the Mediterranean: Connected ports like Venice, Genoa, Marseille, Barcelona, and Valencia, trading textiles and tools.
- Route of the Atlantic and Baltic (Hansa): Ranged from Lisbon and Castilian ports up to the Baltic Sea, trading goods like wool, wine, and wheat.
Gothic Art and Architecture (12th Century Onwards)
Gothic art emerged in France during the 12th century. This era saw new types of secular constructions like palaces, market halls (auctions), and town halls (municipalities).
Gothic Cathedrals
Cathedrals were powerful symbols of a city’s economic power, prestige, and the religious faith of its inhabitants.
Key Features:
- Pointed arches (ogival or Gothic arches) and ribbed vaults, allowing for greater height and lighter structures.
- Large stained-glass windows filling the interior with colored light.
- Flying buttresses and buttresses supporting the high walls externally.
- Towers often crowned with spires or pinnacles.
- Rose windows (large circular stained-glass windows).
- Gable decorations above portals.
- Latin cross floor plan.
Gothic Sculpture and Painting
- Sculpture: Became more realistic, showing volume, a sense of movement, and depicting narrative scenes.
- Painting: Showed greater representation of depth, attention to detail, and use of new colors.
- Altarpieces: Often included a depiction of the patron who commissioned and paid for the artwork.