Medieval Europe: Feudalism, Society, and Economic Shifts

Posted on Dec 10, 2024 in Geography

The Mosaic of States and Kingdoms in the 11th Century

In the north were the Normans, settled in England since the middle of the 11th century. At the heart of Europe were the kingdoms of France and the Holy Roman Empire. In the east were the Slavic kingdoms, formed as powerful principalities like Kiev. In the Mediterranean were the Byzantine Empire and Western Christian kingdoms.

Political Changes: Kings and Parliaments

In the Middle Ages, major political changes included the consolidation of the power of kings and the birth of the first parliaments. The kings of the various Christian states attempted to consolidate their power from the 12th century onward. They rejected the supremacy of the emperor and fought to impose their will on the feudal lords, with the support of cities. The cities provided economic resources to the king to fight the lords. In return, the kings gave them privileges (freedom and autonomy to govern) and allowed the representatives of some cities to attend meetings of the Curia Regia.

Parliaments: Political assemblies were formed by representatives of the nobility, clergy, and some cities, who met when summoned by the king. Their main function was to approve the payment of new taxes or extraordinary contributions to finance wars.

Agricultural Expansion

Land area under cultivation improved due to:

Increased Area Cultivated: This was achieved through clearing forests, draining wetlands, reclaiming land from the sea, and annexing and colonizing new lands.
Improved Agricultural Techniques: This was based on the introduction and diffusion of innovations, and the three-year rotation system was imposed on the biennial rotation.
Improved Agricultural Tools: This was achieved through the spread of iron in their construction and the improvement of water mills.

Consequences: Increased agricultural production led to better food, population growth, increased trade, and the expansion of cities where goods were exchanged.

The Revival of Cities

In the 11th century, there was a resurgence in urban life due to increased agricultural production. This revitalized ancient Roman cities that had declined after urban encroachment. New towns sprang up around markets, and artisans and merchants created neighborhoods called “villages.”

City Government

Cities sought independence from the lords, both lay and clergy. Abuses by these lords led the inhabitants to form communities, struggling to obtain a charter from the gentlemen. This document ensured their rights and allowed them to form an autonomous government. The government of cities initially fell to the commune, then to a council and a few judges (who met at a town hall) elected by the citizens, and finally to the urban patricians (wealthy bourgeoisie).

Craft Activities

In these cities, numerous artisans worked in workshops that were also their homes and the places where they sold their products. The workshops were organized into guilds, often located on the same street.

Objectives of the Guilds:

Control of Production: They aimed to avoid competition among members, regulate working hours, holidays, and prices to ensure good product quality and good practice of the trade.
Protection: Guild members paid dues to help the sick, widows, and orphans.

The internal organization of each guild was very rigid:

Master: The shop owner, who owned the tools and materials and had great mastery of the craft. To become a master, one had to create a masterpiece. They were the only ones who could vote and choose leaders and statutes.
Officers: Worked for the master’s pay and knew the trade.
Apprentices: Learned the trade and did not receive pay while learning. They lived and ate at the master’s house.

Business Activities

In the Middle Ages, local and long-distance trade resurfaced due to increased agricultural production and artisan activity.

Types of Trade:

Local Trade: Involved products from nearby places. It was performed daily in urban markets (selling ordinary things) and weekly markets (selling different things, with farmers from surrounding counties exchanging products).
Long-Distance Trade: Involved selling things from far away and was focused on the major commercial cities of each trade route. Some held annual fairs where merchants exchanged goods. These forms of trade were protected by kings and lords, who obtained taxes on the sale of goods.

Centers and Trade Routes for Long-Distance Trade

In the Mediterranean: Trade involved goods brought from Byzantium and the Muslim empire, sold mainly in Venice, Genoa, Florence, Pisa, Marseilles, and Barcelona.
In Northern Europe: Tissues were traded in Flanders, and goods from Russia were sold mainly in Bruges and Ghent.
The Land Route: Linked Flanders and northern Italy, with goods from both areas exchanged in Champagne.

Consequences of the Development of Long-Distance Trade: The creation of powerful trade associations, increased use of currency and other payment methods, and the appearance of bankers and money changers.

Urban Society

The Urban Patricians: Formed by rich merchants, bankers, and leaders of major guilds.
The Commune: The rest of the urban population, including an intermediate group (guild masters and small businesses), the mass (journeymen, apprentices, and laborers), and the unemployed, poor, and marginalized.

In some cities, Jews were minorities, living in Jewish communities. They were involved in lending, medicine, or banking.

Medieval Religiousness

Christians fought two enemies of their faith:

Heresy: Doctrines contrary to the teachings of the Church. In 1230, a special court was created for crimes against the faith.
Muslims: Living in the Holy Land (where Jesus lived), crusades were organized to expel them.

The Crisis of the 14th Century

Christianity suffered a serious crisis that began to be overcome in the 15th century. Its causes were:

Poor harvests due to climatic anomalies, causing hunger, malnutrition, and a weakened population.
Escalation of wars. France and England fought the Hundred Years’ War, and in other countries, wars intensified among feudal lords, ruining fields and crops.
The Black Death (1348-1352) originated in Asia and came to Europe through trade. It killed a third of the European population.

The consequences of the crisis were generally:

Demographic: The European population fell between 1300 and 1400 from 80 to 45 million.
Economic: Agricultural production fell due to a lack of manpower, and demand and trade declined.
Social: Conflicts arose in the countryside as lords increased their demands on peasants. In cities, the working classes revolted against the urban patricians and assaulted Jewish communities, blaming them for the calamities.
Spiritual: The crisis caused much pessimism (reflected in art and literature) and a religious exaltation.

Political Situation in Medieval Europe

Medieval Europe was a mosaic of kingdoms and states with common elements: Christianity and feudalism (political, social, and economic organization). There was great uncertainty after the death of Charlemagne.

Causes: Struggles between the emperor’s successors, Muslim attacks in the Mediterranean, and new waves of invasions (Normans, Slavs, Hungarians, and Bulgarians).

Consequences:

Kings: Unable to defend the territory, they entrusted defense to local nobles who ruled the lands as their own.
Peasants: Sought protection from nobles, handing over land and/or work.

The Feudal System

The political, economic, and social development of Europe (11th-13th centuries) was characterized by feudal-vassal relations of two types:

Between the king and high nobility.
Between high nobility and lesser nobility or clergy.

These relationships involved pacts of military alliance (in principle, for life, but later inherited) in exchange for economic concessions. They consisted of:

Vassalage: A noble placed themselves under the jurisdiction of another (superior) and became a vassal. At first, these positions were for life, but later they became hereditary.
Homage: An oath of allegiance, military assistance, and advice.
Investiture: The symbolic delivery of the manor in return for loyalty.
Fief: The lord granted the vassal a large tract of land, governance rights, and the right to collect taxes.

Manorial Dependency Ratios: These were carried out between lords and peasants:

Peasants: In exchange for protection, they gave their lands to the lord and worked for him.
Lords: Charged rents and had seigneurial rights over them (administering justice).

Political Organization

Feudal Kings: Held power of divine origin, with broad powers (in theory), including leading the army, administering justice, and legislating. Nobles were directly dependent on them, and vassals of these nobles were indirectly dependent. In practice, they were only “first among equals” among the great nobles who ruled their territories regardless of the king.

Royal Court: Had no fixed abode. It was composed of the royal family, servants, soldiers, officials, and the Curia.

Curia Regia: An assembly of nobles and ecclesiastics that advised the king on matters of government. Later, when incorporating representatives of the cities, it became known as parliaments or courts.

Economic Organization

The economy was based on agriculture within the manor or lordship (belonging to the king, nobles, or clergy).

Reserve: The part of the fief operated by the lord with his servants. It included the best lands and forests.
Manses: Small parcels delivered to farmers in exchange for rent (part of the harvest) and free labor in the demesne (sowing, harvesting, and repairs).

Manors were self-sufficient (they had everything necessary for daily life, and trade had practically disappeared).

Stately Monopolies: Some facilities were unique to the lord (mill, oven, wine press), and he charged farmers for their use.

Technical Instruments: Tillage tools were so rudimentary that land yields were small.

Social Organization

Society was divided into three estates determined by birth:

Nobility: Defenders of society. There were several groups according to wealth and power:
- High Nobility: Dukes, counts, and marquises (direct vassals of the king).
- Low Nobility: Lesser nobles (including knights), who were men with horses and arms.
Clergy: Prayed for the salvation of mankind. There were also two groups:
- High Clergy: Bishops and abbots (second sons of the nobility).
- Low Clergy: Priests, monks, and nuns (came from the peasantry).
Peasantry: Worked to keep society functioning. They could be:
- Villeins: Free peasants who could leave the manor.
- Serfs: Peasants who could not leave the land and passed on their status to their heirs.

Abstract: The nobility and clergy were the privileged classes. They did not work, paid no taxes, enjoyed legal privileges, and held government positions exclusively. The peasantry lacked privileges and was very numerous (there was little trade and handicrafts).

The Nobility

Formed from minor cavalry, one would enter at 6 years old as a page in another castle, learning courtly rules of behavior. At 14, they became squires, trusted companions of a knight, guarding weapons and accompanying them in tournaments. At 21, they were knighted by the king or a nobleman.

Activities:

War: Accompanied the king with his troops (banners).
Peace: Trained for war through horseback riding, hunting, and tournaments.

Women: If married, they ran the household, raised children, prayed, and embroidered. Marriages were arranged between the parents of the parties. If single, they often entered monasteries.

The Clergy (The Church)

Politics: Advised kings, arbitrated disputes, and sought to curb the violence of the period with measures like the Peace of God and the Truce of God.
Economy: Owned fiefdoms and received income from farmers. They also received the tithe, a tenth of the harvest from all farmers, for the maintenance of worship. Donations were made to pray for the souls of the deceased.
Social: They were a privileged group with great influence on society. They imposed religious obligations (mass, prayer, confessions) and oversaw the morals of society. They also performed social work, helping the poor and sick, collecting orphans, and receiving those persecuted.
Cultural: Organized education, copied books, and promoted works of art (along with kings and nobles).

Mode of Life:

Secular Clergy: Bishops and priests lived among the laity and were not subject to any rule.
Regular Clergy: Monks and abbesses lived communally in monasteries and obeyed the rule of each order.

Differences:

High Clergy: Bishops and abbots lived like feudal lords (being second sons).
Low Clergy: Priests and monks lived poorly (coming from the peasantry).

Monastery: Located in the countryside, their activities were governed by the rule of the order (St. Benedict: ora et labora, or pray and work). They were economic centers, possessing extensive lands, serfs, and facilities (mills, presses, workshops). They were also cultural centers, with schools where they copied ancient books by hand. Their main areas included the church, cloister, chapter house, refectory, kitchen, and cells.

The Peasantry

Living Conditions: Harsh due to the work, primitive tools, payment of manorial rents, low yields of the land (biennial rotation and later triennial with fallow), obligations to pay taxes (to the lord and the Church), free labor in the demesne for a certain number of days per year, and payment for the use of manorial monopolies (mill, oven, wine press).

Participation in Agricultural Tasks: Men performed the hardest tasks, the elderly and children the less demanding ones. Women participated in planting and harvesting, as well as spinning and sewing. They also worked outside the home as maids or bakers.

Peasant Village: Surrounded by forests (providing fruit, hunting, firewood, and pasture), they were located on land reclaimed from the forest. Houses were simple, with wooden, stone, or adobe walls, basic furniture, and two parts: a stable and barn, and the house itself on the ground floor.