Medieval Europe: Society, Economy, and Gothic Art
Cities and Medieval Kingdoms: The Rise of the Gothic
Technical improvements in agriculture and the clearing of new land provided increased food production and population growth during the Middle Ages. Settlements formed around fortifications, such as those located outside Burgos. The bourgeoisie, who lived within these settlements, eventually saw their towns grow, necessitating the construction of walls to encompass them. From the 13th century onward, an extensive network of cities developed throughout Europe. Many farmers migrated to these urban centers, attracted by the prospect of a better life, but often ended up as laborers or servants. The burgesses, however, were free, and their wealth made them increasingly powerful. Medieval cities also had a large population of low-income individuals, including artisans, the poor, workers, and servants.
The Rise of Crafts, Guilds, and Trade
Crafts consisted of handmade objects, and the workplace of artisans was the workshop. Textile manufacturing was particularly well-developed. Guilds, associations that included all the artisans of a particular trade in a city, organized labor and set the prices of products. Workers began as apprentices, eventually becoming journeymen and then masters. Trade was one of the primary functions of the medieval city. Merchants traveled to fairs to sell their products. Initially, the scarcity of money led to widespread use of barter. However, starting in the 13th century, Italian cities began to mint gold coins, which were highly valued for their purity. To facilitate trade, money changers emerged, marking the beginning of the first banks, which soon also engaged in lending.
The Investiture Controversy and the Growth of Kingdoms
The struggle between the Pope and the Emperor, known as the Investiture Controversy, arose from their desire for supremacy. The Emperor sought control over the Church, while the Pope wanted an Emperor who would be amenable to his authority and allow him to appoint bishops. This conflict ultimately weakened both sides.
As kingdoms grew, their governments became increasingly complex. Monarchs were forced to introduce new political institutions, most notably consultative assemblies, such as parliaments and courts. These bodies were typically organized around three estates: clergy, nobility, and commoners (or the “royal estate”). These assemblies had a consultative status and could not create laws.
The Crisis of the 14th Century
The early 14th century saw a worsening of living conditions for much of the population. Crop failures and the apparent limits of agricultural expansion led to a precarious balance between population and resources. Poor harvests resulted in widespread famines, and labor shortages caused a decline in agricultural production.
The Hundred Years’ War and the Great Schism
The Hundred Years’ War, a conflict between England and France that lasted from 1337 to 1453, stemmed from a succession crisis following the death of the last Capetian king of France without a male heir. The French ultimately won. Many believed that the wars were caused by the sins of the Church, leading to a severe crisis within the institution and culminating in the Great Schism of the West.
The Development of Gothic Art and Architecture
Gothic art flourished between the 13th and 15th centuries. It was closely linked to the growth of cities and the rising influence of the bourgeoisie. The 13th century also saw the emergence of the first universities, where subjects like medicine and theology were studied. The defining elements of the Gothic style include the pointed arch, the ribbed vault, flying buttresses, and stained glass. The most characteristic buildings of this era are the great Gothic cathedrals, which symbolized prosperity. Cities also sought to reflect their wealth and power in enduring structures such as city halls, auction markets, and public squares.
Gothic Sculpture and Painting
Gothic sculpture is prominently featured on the facades of cathedrals, altarpieces, and freestanding sculptures and tombs. Religious themes continued to dominate, with a preference for gentler subjects related to the Virgin Mary, often referred to as “White Virgins.” Gothic architecture also influenced the evolution of painting, as many apses of the new churches were closed off with large windows. The generalization of the panel as a support was the most significant development. Giotto, an artist who lived between the 13th and 14th centuries, is notable for the naturalism and volume of his figures. The Flemish school is renowned for its use of oil paint, meticulous detail, interest in perspective, and attention to the depiction of everyday life.