Medieval Europe: Urban Rebirth and Transformation
1. Urban Rebirth of Europe (12th Century)
1.1 Agricultural Revolution and Bourgeoisie
Main causes:
- Good harvests and population increase
- Resurgent commerce
The agricultural revolution led to expansion due to:
- Cultivation of new lands
- Invention of new farming techniques (seed selection, triennial rotation, iron plow)
- Increased draft efficiency (rigid collar, nailed horseshoes, windmills, watermills)
A new class emerged: the bourgeoisie.
1.2 Development of Trade and Craft
Agricultural surpluses led to increased commercial activity and craftsmanship. Trade routes were established across Europe, markets and fairs appeared, currency was used again, and bankers emerged. Artisans organized into guilds (master, officers, apprentices).
1.3 Social Transformations
Nobility remained tied to land, while clergy moved to cities. Religious orders increased but became more cultural. Farmers continued in agriculture, though some left the fiefdom. The bourgeoisie led to different groups:
- Big traders, businessmen, and bankers
- Small traders or master craftsmen and apprentices
- Officials
- Servants
- Beggars and vagabonds
2. Medieval Towns
Medieval towns originated from ancient Roman cities, merchant crossing sites, or weekly markets linking rural and urban areas. New neighborhoods were built outside city walls. Specialization occurred in:
- Commerce: Genoa, Venice
- Crafts: Burgos, London
- Fairs: Antwerp, Troyes, Medina del Campo
- Universities: Paris, Oxford
3. Monarchies and Cities
- Monarchies reinforced authority through delegated agents and royal councils (curia regia) transforming into courts or parliaments.
- Cities received charters or letters granting self-governance and more freedom to citizens.
4. Religious Sentiment
4.1 The Crusades
Military expeditions to recover holy places from Muslims (12th-13th centuries). Military orders (e.g., Templars) were created. Contributed to the modernization of Europe.
4.2 Mendicant Orders
Due to church enrichment, mendicant orders emerged to renew church principles and evangelize.
4.3 Religious Problems
Proliferation of heresies led to the establishment of the Inquisition in the 13th century. The Western Schism occurred in the 14th century, resolved by electing Martin V in 1417.
5. Culture
5.1 Schools and Universities
A cultural renaissance in the 11th century led to cathedral schools and universities (Bologna, Paris, Oxford, Salamanca). The trivium and quadrivium were studied. The School of Translators in Toledo and St. Thomas Aquinas were notable.
5.2 Science, Astronomy, and Technique
Belief in geocentrism persisted. The first arithmetic manuals were published. The distaff appeared, beginning textile industry mechanization. Sailing ships used rudders and compasses, leading to the invention of the caravel. The printing press was developed by Gutenberg around 1440, with the Bible being the first printed book.
6. Gothic Art (12th-14th Centuries)
Originated in France in the 12th century, spreading across Europe. Art of cathedrals and cities.
- Painting: More realistic and expressive than Romanesque.
- Sculpture: More expression and movement, with natural figures and dresses.
- Architecture: Higher walls, narrow and large stained glass windows, buttresses, pointed arches, and ribbed vaults.
7. End of the Medieval Age (14th Century)
7.1 Crisis
Crop failures led to hunger and population decline. Technological progress stopped, and epidemics spread (e.g., the Black Plague in 1348). The Hundred Years’ War exacerbated issues, leading to:
- Increased beggars and thieves
- Rebellions by disadvantaged groups
7.2 Beginning of the Modern Age (Late 14th-15th Centuries)
- Good harvests and population recovery
- Centralization of power and creation of political institutions (courts, parliaments)
- New currents of thought and navigation techniques facilitated geographical discoveries