Medieval Iberian Kingdoms: History, Society, and Art
Kingdoms of Medieval Iberia
Kingdom of Castile
Alfonso X
Alfonso X, son of Fernando III, continued the Reconquista by conquering lands such as Cadiz. He also undertook reforestation efforts within the Kingdom of Castile.
Isabel I and Fernando II (Catholic Monarchs)
Isabel I of Castile married Fernando II of Aragon, forming the union known as the Catholic Monarchs. They established the Holy Brotherhood, a peacekeeping force. In the pivotal year of 1492, they expelled the Sephardic Jews from Castile, conquered Granada (the last Muslim kingdom on the peninsula), and funded Christopher Columbus’s voyage to America.
Crown of Aragon
Formation and Union with Catalonia
The Kingdom of Aragon became independent in 1035. Later, through the marriage of Petronilla of Aragon (daughter of Ramiro II, associated with the legend of the Bell of Huesca) to Ramon Berenguer IV, Count of Barcelona, Aragon and Catalonia were united under the Crown of Aragon. The Catalan counties, initially belonging to the Frankish kingdom (with figures like Wilfred the Hairy), had gradually gained independence before this union.
Jaime I the Conqueror
Jaime I of Aragon, known as ‘the Conqueror’, captured significant territories from the Muslims, including Valencia and the Balearic Islands. His realm encompassed Aragon, Catalonia, Valencia, and the Balearic Islands. He also conquered Murcia, but it was later ceded to Castile to avoid conflicts over Mediterranean expansion and North African cities.
Kingdom of Navarre
Navarre, initially a territory belonging to the Frankish kingdom, gained independence in the 9th century. In 1512, Navarre was incorporated into the Crown of Castile.
Kingdom of Portugal
Portugal originated as a fiefdom granted by Alfonso VI of Castile to his daughter Teresa. Her son, Afonso Henriques, proclaimed himself King of Portugal in 1128, establishing the country’s independence.
Society and People
Key Human Groups in Medieval Iberia
- Sephardi Jews: Practiced Judaism, praying in synagogues, and often lived in designated quarters known as juderías or ghettos.
- Mozarabs: Christians who lived under Muslim rule in Al-Andalus.
- Muladíes: Iberian Christians who converted to Islam during the rule of Al-Andalus.
- Mudéjares: Muslims who remained in territories conquered by Christians during the Reconquista, living under Christian rule.
Economy and Exploration
Castilian Economy: The Mesta and Wool Trade
The Castilian economy was heavily influenced by the Mesta, a powerful organization of sheep ranchers. High-quality wool was a major export to Europe. Shepherds practiced transhumance, moving large flocks along established routes (cañadas reales) in search of seasonal pastures.
Aragonese Economy: Agriculture and Mediterranean Trade
The economy of the Crown of Aragon focused on agriculture, including grapes (leading to Cava production in Catalonia) and olives. Barcelona and Valencia were major Mediterranean ports with significant maritime trade. Buildings called Lonjas served as mercantile exchanges where merchants met and traded goods.
Portuguese Economy: Maritime Exploration
Portugal focused on maritime exploration and trade. Using innovative ships like the caravel, the Portuguese reached the Azores, Madeira, Cape Verde, and extensively explored the African coast. This era also marked the beginning of the tragic African slave trade.
Art and Architecture Styles
Asturian Art (Pre-Romanesque, 8th-10th centuries)
This early style is characterized by stilted arches, small windows (often without glass), barrel vaults, and external buttresses. Notable examples near Oviedo include Santa María del Naranco and San Miguel de Lillo.
Mozarabic Art (c. 10th century)
A fusion of Christian (Visigothic, Asturian) and Islamic artistic elements. Key features include the horseshoe arch, often framed by an ornamental moulding called an alfiz. Plans could be basilical (Latin cross) or Greek cross. An example is the Monastery of San Miguel de Escalada.
Romanesque Art (c. 11th-12th centuries)
Features include rounded arches, barrel vaults, and massive construction. Examples mentioned include the Cathedral of Santiago de Compostela (notably its ambulatory, the passage behind the altar), the Church of San Martín de Frómista, and the Church of Sant Climent de Taüll (famous for its frescoes).
Mudéjar Art
A unique Iberian style blending Christian structural forms (Gothic, Romanesque) with Islamic ornamentation and techniques. It is characterized by the extensive use of brick, intricate plasterwork, and decorative wooden ceilings (artesonados). Examples might include structures like the Puerta del Sol in Toledo, the Church of Santiago del Arrabal in Toledo, and various churches named San Pedro or San Nicolás in cities across Castile.