Medieval Iberian Kingdoms: Rise and Fall
The Kingdom of Asturias and León
The Kingdom of Asturias was formed by Visigothic nobles who joined with the Cantabrian population. In 722, Don Pelayo slowed the Muslim advance at the Battle of Covadonga and founded the kingdom. Expanding their territory, they conquered León and made it their capital.
The Kingdom of Castile and León
The Kingdom of León was divided into counties governed by counts who reported to the king. Castile, an important county located on the eastern frontier, was governed by Castilian counts, vassals of the king, who ruled with semi-independence due to the constant Muslim threat. The challenging conditions led to the construction of numerous fortifications for defense and territorial control. This abundance of castles gave the region its name: Tierra de Castilla or Land of Castles.
The Independence of Castile
In the late tenth century, the Leonese monarchy’s weakness and lack of authority in Castile allowed Count Fernando Gonzalez, a vassal of the king, to cease paying homage. Castile became an independent kingdom.
The Union of Castile and León
During the 11th-13th centuries, the kingdoms of Castile and León experienced periods of both alliance and conflict due to inheritance and political reasons, until 1230 when Ferdinand III finally united them under the name Kingdom of Castile. His reign and that of his son, Alfonso X the Wise, mark the kingdom’s most brilliant era.
La Reconquista
The Kingdom of Castile expanded throughout central and southern Iberia, conquering Al-Andalus and consolidating its power over other Christian kingdoms.
Castilian armies conquered the Kingdom of Toledo (1085), a crucial victory that extended their reach beyond the Tagus River valley. In the following years, they took the provinces of Guadalajara, Madrid, and Cuenca.
The arrival of the Almoravids in the late 11th century and the Almohads in the 12th century from North Africa temporarily halted the Christian advance. However, the Muslims were defeated at the Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa (1212). This victory accelerated Christian progress, leading to the occupation of most of Andalusia, except for the Kingdom of Granada, which fell in the 15th century.
The reigns of Alfonso VI (1040-1109) and Ferdinand III (1201-1252) represent the most fruitful period of the Reconquista. The main causes of this expansion were:
- The monarchs’ ambition to expand their territories.
- The need for new farmland due to population growth in the late 11th century.
- The concept of a crusade to reclaim lands from Muslim rule.
Resettlement
Following conquests, resettlement programs brought settlers from northern Iberia to cultivate the new lands. To ensure territorial control and defend Christianity, the Castilian monarch granted land ownership rights in the form of large estates, distributing land among those who had supported military expeditions. Ecclesiastical institutions and the aristocracy monopolized most of this land.
Economy
The Economy of the Kingdom of Asturias-León
Between the 8th and 10th centuries, the Asturian-Leonese economy was primarily subsistence-based. Agricultural and livestock production barely met local needs, with little surplus for trade. Manufacturing and commerce were underdeveloped, contrasting sharply with the urban economy of Al-Andalus.
The Economy of the Kingdom of Castile
Between the 11th and 13th centuries, the Kingdom of Castile, like the rest of Europe, experienced significant economic growth. Agriculture became more productive, but the economic engine was merino sheep farming. Farmers, particularly nobles, formed the Honrado Concejo de la Mesta in 1273, regulating sheep transhumance. High-quality Castilian wool became a valuable export, driving the development of Biscayan ports, particularly after the conquest of Seville. Wool was shipped from these ports to the Netherlands. Agricultural and livestock products were also traded at major fairs, such as the one in Medina del Campo.
Trade Relations with Al-Andalus
Despite frequent border conflicts, Castile and Al-Andalus maintained strong trade relations. The Islamic world experienced economic prosperity between the 7th and 12th centuries. Cities in Al-Andalus developed important trade routes with Europe and Castile, facilitated by strong currencies. Luxury goods like silks, ceramics, glass, bronze, gold, and silver were highly prized in the Christian kingdoms.
Castilian Society
Castilian society, similar to other Western European societies, was divided into rigid estates. The population was small due to armed conflicts, unevenly distributed, and legally diverse. Despite urban growth, most people lived in small villages under the control of feudal lords, either lay or ecclesiastical. Society was ethnically and religiously diverse, comprising Christians, Jews, and Muslims. Jewish and Muslim minorities lived in their own urban quarters (juderías and morerías), under the authority of judges of their respective religions.
Crises of the 14th Century
The Economic and Demographic Crisis
In the 14th century, the Black Death ravaged Castile. Arriving in 1348, the epidemic depopulated cities and villages, leaving fields abandoned. Malnutrition, low agricultural yields, crop failures, and famine weakened the population. The plague’s full impact is difficult to assess due to limited data. It affected all social classes, including King Alfonso XI, who died of the plague in 1350 while besieging Gibraltar.
The Political Crisis
The financial crisis ruined the nobility. Increased taxes led to noble rebellions against the king, challenging his authority. The struggle for power initiated a period of dynastic conflict. In 1369, Henry of Trastámara, supported by the nobility, rebelled against his brother Peter I, starting the Castilian Civil War. Henry’s victory established the Trastámara dynasty.
The Social Crisis
The Castilian population endured harsh conditions: economic crisis, rising food prices, increased feudal demands, and new taxes. Popular discontent led to peasant revolts, such as the Irmandiño revolt in Galicia, where peasants confronted feudal lords. The revolt was brutally suppressed. Social tensions also targeted foreigners and religious minorities, who faced persecution and violence.
Recovery and the End of Al-Andalus
The Recovery of the 15th Century
Castile recovered from the 14th-century crises during the 15th century. Demographic recovery, specialized agricultural production (wine), increased livestock, and growth in crafts (textiles, leather, iron) boosted domestic and international trade. However, new plague outbreaks, poor harvests, and price increases caused difficulties between 1450 and 1480.
The Trastámara dynasty strengthened after the marriage of Isabella I of Castile and Ferdinand II of Aragon in 1469, uniting the two kingdoms.
The End of Al-Andalus
Despite Muslim resistance, the Taifa kingdoms fell to Castile. Only the Nasrid kingdom of Granada survived until the end of the Middle Ages, thanks to tribute payments and Castile’s internal conflicts. Internal strife weakened Granada, and in 1492, the last monarch, Boabdil, surrendered to Ferdinand and Isabella.
Art
Mudejar Art
Heavily influenced by Muslim art. Mudejar Romanesque (12th century Castile) features Romanesque arches, barrel vaults, Latin cross plans, and Mudejar tilework and geometric patterns. Gothic Mudejar (12th-15th centuries) combines Gothic pointed arches and ribbed vaults with Muslim brickwork (examples: Seville churches, Alcázar, and Guadalete Monastery).
Other Artistic Styles
- Asturian Art (9th century): Buttresses and arches (example: Santa María del Naranco Palace).
- Mozarabic Art: Christian architecture in Al-Andalus and Mozarabic territories (example: ).
- Romanesque Art: Spread along the Way of St. James (example: Santo Domingo de Silos Monastery).
- Gothic Art (13th century): Burgos, León, and Toledo Cathedrals. (14th-15th centuries): Primarily in Aragon (examples: Barcelona Cathedral, Palma de Mallorca Cathedral, Barcelona Gothic Quarter, Valencia Silk Exchange). Flamboyant Gothic (late 15th century): More baroque elements (example: Seville Cathedral).
The Kingdom of Navarre
In 830, the Arista family ousted the Franks from Pamplona and formed the Kingdom of Pamplona, later Navarre. Sancho III the Great (1004-1035) achieved maximum territorial expansion, fortifying the border from the Ebro River to the Pyrenees and briefly uniting Navarre, Castile, and Aragon.
Kingdom of Aragon
After the death of Gonzalo, Ramiro I united the counties of Aragon, Sobrarbe, and Ribagorza, becoming the first King of Aragon. In 1076, the Navarrese chose Sancho Ramírez of Aragon as their king after the assassination of Sancho IV of Navarre, uniting the two crowns.
The kingdom reached its greatest extent in the 12th century under Alfonso I the Battler, who conquered Tudela, Tarazona, Calatayud, Daroca, and Zaragoza.
The Catalan Counties
In the late 9th century, the Catalan counties gained independence from the Franks. Wilfred the Hairy, Count of Barcelona, Gerona, Urgell, and Cerdanya, established hereditary rule. Barcelona gradually absorbed the other counties. In 985, Count Borrell II of Barcelona requested French aid against a Muslim attack. When the French refused, Borrell declared independence in 987.
Navarre and the Crown of Aragon
Navarre: A Kingdom Linked to France
Navarre became independent from Aragon in 1134. Its expansion focused on France, as Castile and Aragon blocked southward movement. Through marriages, Navarre became linked to French dynasties until its incorporation into Castile in 1513. Major cities included Pamplona, Tudela, and Estella, whose growth was linked to pilgrimage and trade between Al-Andalus and Europe. Kings granted privileges to foreign merchants in these cities.
The Crown of Aragon: A Confederation of Kingdoms
In 1137, Petronilla of Aragon married Ramon Berenguer IV, Count of Barcelona. Their son, Alfonso II, began the Catalan-Aragonese dynasty. The Crown of Aragon was a confederation comprising Aragon, Catalonia, and later (1245) Valencia. Each kingdom retained its own laws and courts.
During the 12th and 13th centuries, the Crown of Aragon became a major Western power through economic and territorial expansion.
The Expansion of the Crown of Aragon
Expansion began under Ramon Berenguer IV and Petronilla and intensified in the 13th century under James I the Conqueror. Conquests included territories held by Muslims, forming New Catalonia, the Balearic Islands, Valencia, and parts of Occitania. This fueled trade, with Aragonese merchants importing Eastern luxury goods and exporting raw materials. The Almogavars, mercenary soldiers, played a key role in these conquests, including Sicily, Mallorca, and Valencia.
Economy and Society
By the late 13th century, the Crown encompassed Aragon, Majorca, and Sicily.
- Aragon (12th-14th centuries): Strong agricultural (cereals) and livestock sectors.
- Valencia: Muslim population maintained irrigated agriculture and luxury crafts.
- Catalonia and Majorca: Major urban centers with a burgeoning bourgeoisie engaged in manufacturing and trade.
Coastal cities competed for Mediterranean trade, exporting textiles, coral, and saffron, and importing wheat, gum arabic, gold, silk, and spices. The Crown established consulates in major Mediterranean ports to protect its trade interests.
An Urban Society
Aragonese cities were dominated by a bourgeoisie of merchants and craftsmen, alongside landowners, bankers, farmers, and nobles. Nobles held political power. Cities also housed professionals (doctors, students, clerks, priests) and a large impoverished population with limited rights.
Demographic and Economic Crisis
Poor harvests and the Black Death in the early 14th century caused a demographic crisis, leading to abandoned farms and economic decline. Agricultural production fell, food prices rose, and unemployment increased.
Social Crisis
Social conflicts erupted in Aragon, Catalonia, and Majorca.
- Rural Conflicts: Peasant revolts against harsh feudal conditions and rising prices.
- Urban Conflicts: Struggles for control of city governments, particularly in Barcelona, between the bourgeoisie and the nobility.
Valencia experienced growth as a port for Castilian wool exports to Italy. Jewish communities in Castile, Majorca, and Barcelona faced persecution and violence.
Political Crisis
The death of King Martin I in 1410 without a direct heir led to the Compromise of Caspe (1412), which appointed Ferdinand I of Antequera as king, pacifying rebellious territories. His sons, Alfonso V the Magnanimous and John II, faced political instability and civil war in Catalonia. The Capitulation of Pedralbes in 1492 failed to resolve the political and economic problems. Ferdinand II of Aragon (1479-1516) ruled both Aragon and Castile after marrying Isabella. The Arbitral Sentence of Guadalupe in 1486 ended the conflict between feudal lords and vassals.