Medieval Iberian Peninsula: Muslim Conquest, Al-Andalus, and Taifa Kingdoms
The Iberian Peninsula in the Middle Ages
Muslim Conquest and Invasion (711-732)
In 711, the Iberian Peninsula was invaded by Arab peoples, Berbers, and Syrians. The Muslim expansion was rapid, exploiting internal Visigoth conflicts. Most local authorities surrendered to the invaders. The first phase (711-716) began after the defeat of King D. Rodrigo at Guadalete by a Berber army led by Tarik, later joined by Arabs under Musa. By 716, most of the mainland was conquered with little bloodshed. Many Visigoth nobles signed agreements to retain their property. In a second phase (716-732), Muslims advanced beyond the Pyrenees but were defeated by the Franks at Poitiers (732), settling in the southern peninsula, leaving the Douro Valley as a “no man’s land”, the Desierto Del Duero, a frontier between Arabs and small Christian nuclei.
The Emirate and Caliphate of Cordoba
The Arab state in the Iberian Peninsula, al-Andalus, became a province ruled by an Emir dependent on the caliphs of Damascus (dependent Emirate, 8th century). Constant struggles occurred between Arabs, Berbers, and Syrians. After the fall of the Umayyad dynasty in Damascus, Rahman, the only survivor, fled to Al-Andalus, seized power, and proclaimed himself emir (independent Emirate of Cordoba, 8th-9th century). He consolidated the state by increasing taxes, forming a loyal administration, and organizing a mercenary army. His successors faced challenges maintaining unity. Emir Abd ar-Rahman III unified Al-Andalus, severed ties with Baghdad, and proclaimed himself caliph, assuming political, legal, military, and religious power. This marked the beginning of the Caliphate of Cordoba, a period of political, military, cultural, and artistic splendor, making Al-Andalus the most advanced society of its time (10th century).
11th Century Crisis: The Taifa Kingdoms
In 1031, the Caliphate of Cordoba disintegrated, leading to the formation of independent Taifa Kingdoms. Some were Arab, such as Seville, Cordoba, Badajoz, Toledo, and Zaragoza. Others were Berber, like Malaga and Granada. In Tortosa, Valencia, and Murcia Játiva, they were of Slavic origin. This fragmentation weakened Al-Andalus, making it vulnerable to Christian kingdoms. Christian kingdoms demanded taxes (pariah) for protection. These taxes strengthened Christian power, leading to the occupation of Toledo by Alfonso VI of Castile and the collapse of the Tagus defensive line (1085).
Economic and Social Organization of Al-Andalus
The economy of Al-Andalus was based on agriculture, incorporating new products (oranges, eggplant, rice, sugarcane, flax, cotton, mulberry) and intensive irrigation methods. Crafts (glass, leather, ceramics) and textiles (wool, silk, linen, cotton) were important urban activities, but trade was the most significant, both internal and external. Al-Andalus imported slaves and raw materials and exported manufactured goods, especially luxury items. The circulation of money was abundant due to its central location on European, Asian, and African routes. The main currencies were the dinar (gold) and the dirham (silver). Society was composed of an Arab minority, close to power and land ownership, exploiting serfs through Mozarabic and Muladi populations, subject to taxes or sharecropping contracts. Berbers had a more precarious situation. There were also Muladis (Islamized Christians), who paid less in taxes and had some legal recognition but were subordinate to the Arab minority. Less numerous were the Mozarabic Christians living under Muslim rule and Jews.