Medieval Lyric and Narrative Poetry
Theme 1: The Medieval Lyric
Introduction
The lyric is the literary genre predominantly expressing the author’s voice, or more precisely, the lyrical or poetic voice. Lyrical expression is associated with formal models like poems, verses, meter, rhyme, and stanzas, while prose can also be lyrical. Especially since the twentieth century, all these conventions have been challenged. The medieval period spans the fifth century through the fifteenth, but when discussing Spanish literature, we will focus on the tenth to fifteenth centuries, from the appearance of the first documented Castilian words until the advent of the Renaissance in the sixteenth century.
1. The Castilian Lyric in the Middle Ages
1.1 The Traditional Lyric
Among the first literary accounts in Romance languages are anonymous lyrical compositions transmitted orally. These poems were the original traditional lyrics, short and characterized by the repetition of words or ideas.
1.1.1 Jarchas
Jarchas are short compositions in vulgar Arabic or Hebrew (Mozarabic) inserted at the end of longer Arabic or Jewish poems called muwassahas. The theme is love: a young woman suffering from the absence of her lover (the habib) complains to her mother and sisters.
1.1.2 Cantigas de Amigo
Written in Galician-Portuguese in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, these share the theme of the jarchas, but the young lover also addresses elements of nature. Parallelism is a frequent stylistic device.
1.1.3 Carols
Castilian carols share the love theme of jarchas and cantigas de amigo, but also develop other subjects: work songs, wedding songs, dawn songs, and celebratory songs. They are used in the representation of biblical themes at Christmas or Easter, giving rise to the Christmas carol.
1.1.4 Carol Structure
- Opening lines (the carol itself), partially or completely repeated, form the chorus.
- A stanza, usually four verses.
- Two or more linking verses, one rhyming with the stanza and another, called the refrain, with the chorus.
1.1.5 Lyrical Romances
These narrative poems emerged in the late fifteenth century. The first examples of lyrical romances dominated Castilian in expressing the poetic voice’s feelings. They derived from epic poems remaining in popular memory. Their form (series of eight-syllable lines rhyming in pairs, with odd-numbered lines being assonant) comes from epic poetry, which originally had sixteen-syllable verses with the same assonant rhyme. The epic verse is divided into two parts in the romance. These fifteenth-century romances are part of the old ballads. They are both lyrical and epic in theme, covering a variety of subjects: sentimental love affairs, historical topics (King Rodrigo, El Cid, the Infantes de Lara), border conflicts against the Moorish king of Granada, and Carolingian or Breton themes (Roland, Charlemagne). The romances mix narration and dialogue and are characterized by their simplicity of expression, spontaneity, and use of resources such as repetitions, parallelism, and alternation of verb forms. The success of the romances led to their application to new pastoral, religious, and mythological themes, cultivated by writers of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. These are known as new romances.
1.2 The Educated Lyric
These are more extensive and complex texts than the traditional lyric. Besides love, they address moral, philosophical, and critical issues related to characters or social groups.
1.2.1 Moaxajas
Written in classical Arabic or Hebrew and created in the tenth century, these educated compositions have five to seven stanzas, with the jarcha (see above) inserted at the end. The subject matter, while not always amorous, is related to the jarcha.
1.2.2 Catalan Troubadour Poetry
Born in Provence in the twelfth century, troubadour poetry was often composed by noblemen in the Provençal language (langue d’oc). In the thirteenth century, Catalan poets inherited this tradition. Typical compositions include:
- Canso: Develops the code of courtly love, where the poet loves a lady to whom he is devoted. He presents himself as a vassal, and the lady appears as a feudal lord.
- Sirventes: Focuses on moral or political satire, criticizing certain characters or political issues.
1.2.3 Songs of Love
Written in Galician-Portuguese in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, these songs also deal with love, but here the gentleman complains about his lady’s scorn.
1.2.4 Mocking Songs and Curses
These criticize the political actions or lifestyle of a social group, though personal attacks against individuals also predominate.
1.3 The Fifteenth-Century Lyric Poetry
Cultured lyric poetry in Castile didn’t develop until the fifteenth century. Noble Castilian poets practiced a kind of poetry collected in songbooks like the Cancionero de Baena and the Cancionero de Stúñiga, which gathered poems from hundreds of authors. Castilian cancionero poetry, based on Provençal literature, addressed the theme of love following the tenets of courtly love. Key figures in the fifteenth century include:
- First half: Marquis of Santillana and Juan de Mena, along with the Dances of Death.
- Second half: Jorge Manrique.
This lyric poetry was influenced by:
- Provençal troubadour poetry: Short verses, primarily love-themed.
- Italian allegorical poetry (Dante): Led to the development of longer, more solemn and artistic songs.
1.3.1 Marquis of Santillana (Íñigo López de Mendoza)
He represents the evolution of the medieval nobility, interested in culture and knowledgeable in classical and Romance literature. His works include:
- Serranillas: Poems about encounters between a knight and a shepherdess, influenced by Provençal poetry, with short verses and light rhythm.
- Infierno de los Enamorados (Hell of Lovers): Shows Italian influence.
- Proverbios (Proverbs): Didactic poetry inspired by the moral judgments of classical authors.
1.3.2 Juan de Mena
Secretary to King John II, he contributed to the establishment of allegorical poetry in Castilian, influenced by Dante. His most famous work is Laberinto de Fortuna (Labyrinth of Fortune), also called Las Trescientas (The Three Hundred), composed in twelve-syllable verses (dodecasyllabic) with elaborate syntax. Dedicated to the king, it examines Castile’s past and present, the influence of fortune on human lives, and prophesies a splendid future.
1.3.3 Dances of Death
This century saw the unique and anonymous Spanish Danza de la Muerte (Dance of Death), a genre widespread in medieval Europe. In these dances, a skeleton summons people from all social classes to remind them of their mortality and invite them to a macabre dance.
1.3.4 Jorge Manrique
He symbolizes the ideal of the noble warrior involved in the political struggles of his time. His cancionero contains love poems, less stilted and artificial than the troubadour style, influenced by Petrarch. His most famous work is Coplas a la Muerte de su Padre (Verses on the Death of his Father), a great elegy honoring his father, Don Rodrigo Manrique. The work consists of 40 stanzas, each with two six-line verses (sextuplets) in a specific meter called copla manriqueña, combining four and eight-syllable lines according to the scheme: 8a 8b 4c 8a 8b 4c 8d 8e 4f 8d 8e 4f. Several themes are addressed:
- Transience of life (tempus fugit): Earthly life is fleeting, a mere step towards eternal life.
- Contempt for earthly things: Riches, beauty, and pleasure are worthless compared to eternal life.
- Homo Viator (man as a traveler): Life is a journey towards eternity.
- Life as a river.
- Ubi sunt? (Where are they?): Reflecting on the fate of past figures.
- Death: It reaches everyone equally.
- Life of fame and honor: Death can be overcome through fame achieved by honorable deeds, like those of his father.
Some stanzas have a propagandistic function, celebrating the life of Don Rodrigo Manrique, a politician in the era of Juan II and Henry IV, and presenting him as a model Christian gentleman.
Theme 2: The Medieval Narrative
Introduction
The first manifestations of European medieval narrative are epic poems composed in Romance languages, known as chansons de geste. These poems narrate the heroic deeds of medieval knights. They were popular among the nobility and common people, who listened to the performances of minstrels. These minstrels traveled through villages, towns, and castles, entertaining audiences with juggling, acrobatics, dance, and the recitation and singing of poetry. They contributed to the diffusion of oral literature. Their profession is known as mester de juglaría (minstrelsy).
1. General Features of the Chanson de Geste
These poems share common features, many derived from oral transmission:
- Metrical: Composed of irregular verses with assonant rhyme, grouped into stanzas called tiradas. A change of rhyme marks a new tirada.
- Minstrel formulas: Expressions that appear regularly, facilitating recitation. These include:
- Direct addresses to the audience: “Hear what the Cid said…”
- Epic epithets: Adjectives and expressions praising the hero: “He who was born in a good hour…”
- Direct style: The narrator gives voice to characters.
- Realism: Real data on places, characters, battles, and clothing are provided to enhance credibility.
2. The Poema de Mio Cid (Song of My Cid)
2.1 Manuscript, Chronology, and Authorship
The Poema de Mio Cid is the only nearly complete Castilian epic poem. It chronicles the exploits of Rodrigo Díaz de Vivar, known as El Cid. An anonymous work, it is preserved in a fourteenth-century manuscript copy, though its composition is earlier. According to Ramón Menéndez Pidal, the song was written in the twelfth century by two minstrels from the Soria region. The second minstrel, more romantic and imaginative, revised the poem a few years later, around 1140. The questions of authorship and date of composition remain debated. Some consider Per Abbat, the manuscript’s signatory in 1307, to be the author.
2.2 The Protagonist: Rodrigo Díaz de Vivar
Rodrigo Díaz de Vivar is a historical figure, but the Poema is not strictly historical. Real events are mixed with legends and poetic invention. It offers a fictionalized reconstruction of his life, emphasizing aspects of his personality that would appeal to the public. Some of his characteristics in the Poema are:
- Great warrior and skilled military strategist.
- Beloved by the people.
- Man of great piety.
- Loyal friend, father, husband, and vassal.
- Moderate in words, deeds, and conduct.
2.3 Structure and Theme
The Poema consists of 3,730 irregular verses with assonant rhyme, grouped into tiradas. It is structured in three parts or cantares (songs):
- Cantar del Destierro (Song of Exile): Accused of treason against King Alfonso VI, El Cid is exiled from Castile. To restore his honor, he fights against Muslims and offers conquered territories to the king.
- Cantar de las Bodas (Song of the Weddings): El Cid conquers Valencia and his wife, Doña Jimena, and daughters, Doña Elvira and Doña Sol, join him. He sends gifts to the king, who rewards him by arranging marriages between his daughters and the Infantes de Carrión.
- Cantar de la Afrenta de Corpes (Song of the Outrage at Corpes): The Infantes de Carrión, revealed as cowards, are mocked by El Cid’s men. They abuse their wives and abandon them in the Corpes oak forest. El Cid challenges them to a duel, leading to his final glorification.
The main theme is the recovery of lost honor.
2.4 Metrics
The poem is composed of tiradas with varying numbers of lines sharing the same assonant rhyme. The lines are irregular, ranging from ten to twenty syllables, with a predominance of Alexandrine verses (14 syllables). They are usually divided into two hemistichs by a pause or caesura.
2.5 Language
The language is adapted to oral recitation, sober and austere, yet forceful and vivid. It uses various linguistic features characteristic of epic poetry:
- Epic epithets: “Antolínez of Burgos he met…”
- Appeals to the listeners: “Hear me, Álvar Fáñez Minaya…”
- Variety of tenses.
- Pleonasms: “Weeping eyes…”
- Omission of introductory verbs: “He raised his right hand…”
3. The Old Ballad
In the fifteenth century, anonymous folk compositions called romances began to be collected in writing. These poems originated centuries earlier and were preserved through oral transmission. The set of anonymous, orally transmitted ballads is called the old ballad or traditional ballad. Some are fragments of epic poems recited independently, but not all have this origin. There are also lyrical ballads.
3.1 Main Themes
- Epic romances: Featuring heroes of the epics.
- Historical romances: Narrating historical events or characters, including Moorish ballads about the Reconquista.
- Lyrical-romantic romances: Telling stories with fictional characters, focusing on feelings, especially love.
3.2 Characteristics
Ballads are typically composed of an indeterminate number of eight-syllable verses, with assonant rhyme in even lines and odd lines being unrhymed. Recited texts often present essential moments of the action rather than the complete story. Jumps in time and incomplete beginnings or endings are common. The story is usually told by a narrator, but direct speech by characters is also frequent, adding liveliness and freshness.
3.3 Purpose
of the romances. As can be seen from the topics covered, the romances were used for entertainment but also to vividly convey news at a time when there were no the mass media.