Medieval Poetry: Troubadours to Ausias March
Medieval Poetry: From Troubadours to Ausias March
Throughout the 12th century, the first written testimonies of Romance languages appeared, proving the independence of each Romance territory from Latin. In medieval times, poetic compositions were inextricably linked to singing with musical accompaniment. The rhythms to which they were subjected to the imperatives of musical notation were still poorly defined. In the Iberian Peninsula, two traditions are known: the Mozarabic kharjas within the poetics of Arab Al-Andalus and the troubadour tradition, written in Occitan.
The Splendor of Occitan Troubadours
The area of Languedoc developed the first literary production that was both cultured and differentiated from Latin. It is called troubadour poetry because troubadours were the creators of the compositions.
Troubadours and Courtly Love
Although troubadours explored a variety of familiar themes and subgenres in their poetry (sirventes for political or social criticism, pastourelles in dialogue form, the planh as a funeral elegy, dance or ballad), the canso stands out for its unique concept of courtly love. This love, recreated in a courtly setting, transformed the feudal relationships of the Middle Ages into amorous ones. The troubadour became the vassal of his beloved. Courtly love was limited to a kind of gallant literary game, paying tribute to the beauty and nobility of a lady of the palace. These ladies, always married, held a prominent position in the castle. The figure of the jealous husband is used in highly poetic compositions, such as the alba, when the two lovers must separate before the castle awakens.
Troubadours and Poets in the Crown of Aragon
Poets of the Crown of Aragon always used Occitan. The reasons for this enthusiasm were the prestige of that first hegemonic Romance lyric and the fact that the kings of the Crown had lands in southern France. To become lords of these lands, they did not hesitate to adopt as their own the troubadour culture and the religiosity imbued with the mystical Christian ideals of the Cathars, who thrived in Occitan lands.
The Troubadour Period of Alfonso II and Peter the Great
There is a period of troubadour poetry during the reigns of Alfonso II and his son Peter the Great, who cultivated poetry and surrounded themselves permanently with Catalan and Occitan troubadours. After King Peter died in the Battle of Muret (1213), the Catalan kings’ domains in southern France diminished, marking the end of Cathar religious mysticism and the sunset of the troubadour era.
Cerverí: The Last Great Troubadour
Guillem de Cervera, known in literature as Cerverí, was the last great troubadour. He produced the most prolific work of all between 1259 and 1285. Cerverí was a professional attached to the royal chancellery as a minstrel and poet in the service of James I, then his son Peter the Great, and Viscount Ramon de Cardona. He wrote both popular genres, such as trobar leu poems, and trobar clus poems with great formal richness.
Poetry Contests, Treatises, and Compilations
From the 14th century onwards, the Consistory of Toulouse institutionalized courtly poetry through the organization of poetry contests. Most of these contests were awarded by the Consistory of Barcelona and its branch for the Gaia Sciencia (Gay Science). The winner was recognized as the best poet and received a golden flower as a prize. Parallel to the competitions, songbooks appeared that collected and disseminated troubadour poetry anthologies, including the important Cançoneret de Ripoll, which provided models to emulate.
The Evolution of Language in Poetry
The Occitan language of the compositions became increasingly contrived. This led to the publication of reference works such as the Razos de Trobar dictionary by Ramon Vidal de Besalú, the Regles de Trobar by Jofre de Foixà, and the Mirall de Trobar by Berenguer d’Anoia. The language of the poets became more closely tied to everyday spoken Catalan. As the Crown expanded throughout the Mediterranean, Italian literary and cultural models began to be known and timidly imitated.