Medieval Spain: A Concise History
Caliphate of Cordoba
Established as the brightest period in Al-Andalus history, it peaked in the early eleventh century. Abd-Al-Rahman III’s proclamation as Caliph consolidated Umayyad independence, uniting religious, political, and military leadership. This era saw the suppression of internal rebellions, halting Christian advances, and fostering cultural and artistic splendor. Al-Mansur’s military campaigns against Christians, including the alleged defeat in 1002, marked the beginning of the Caliphate’s decline and the rise of the Taifa kingdoms.
Taifa Kingdoms
In 1035, the Caliphate of Cordoba dissolved, leading to the formation of the Taifa kingdoms, independent realms that weakened Al-Andalus. Christian kingdoms exploited this fragmentation, bolstering their military power and demanding tribute for peace and protection. In the twelfth century, Al-Andalus restructured into the short-lived Second Taifa kingdoms. By the thirteenth century, after the Almoravid defeat at the Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa, Al-Andalus was reduced to three realms: Granada, Murcia, and Valencia.
Reconquista
The Reconquista, a process of military occupation and repopulation, began in the 11th-12th centuries. Starting in 1031, the fractured Caliphate of Cordoba gave rise to the militarily powerful Taifa kingdoms, forcing them to seek aid from North African forces. Key battles of the Reconquista include Sagrajas (1086), Ucles (1108), and Las Navas de Tolosa (1212). The growing Christian advance fueled the concept of a Reconquista, culminating with the capture of Granada in 1492.
Kingdom of Pamplona
The Kingdom of Pamplona emerged amidst tensions between the emirs of Al-Andalus. The lineage of Iñigo Arista established local governance, expanding its influence from the north. The kingdom’s birth in the tenth century under Sancho Garces I solidified a sense of sovereignty, leading to the proclamation of the monarchy. Reaching its peak under Sancho III the Great, the kingdom became known as Navarre under Sancho VII the Wise.
Las Navas de Tolosa (1212)
This pivotal battle of the Reconquista took place at the Despeñaperros pass. The Almohads were defeated by a Christian coalition comprising Alfonso VIII of Castile, Peter III of Aragon and I of Catalonia, Sancho VII of Navarre, and Alfonso II of Portugal. This victory opened the Guadalquivir valley to the Christian kingdoms.
Medieval Cortes
The rise of cities in the late eleventh century led to the development of the monarchy, offering greater potential for tax revenue. The burgeoning bourgeoisie demanded greater participation in government, traditionally held by the privileged within the Curia Regia. In Castile, the Cortes held advisory and taxation roles, while in Aragon and Navarre, they enjoyed legislative privileges. The Cortes reached its peak in the 14th and 15th centuries.
Union of Castile and Aragon
The dynastic union between Queen Isabella I of Castile and King Ferdinand II of Aragon occurred in 1479. This personal, not institutional, union centralized religious and political power and established a new joint foreign policy, though each region retained its institutions.
Incorporation of Navarre
Navarre, disputed between Castile and France, saw its nobility divided into the Agramonteses and Beaumonteses factions. Ferdinand the Catholic, allied with the Beaumonteses, occupied Pamplona in 1512 under the Duke of Alba, forcing King John III of Navarre to flee to France. Three years later, the Cortes decreed Navarre’s incorporation into Castile, though it retained its laws, currency, courts, and institutions. Subsequent Navarrese attempts to regain independence failed.
Expulsion of the Jews
On March 31, 1492, Jews who refused conversion to Catholicism were expelled. Largely engaged in crafts and lending, they faced envy and hatred due to their perceived profits. Expulsions began in Andalusia in 1482 but were not fully implemented until 1492. Their property was confiscated, resulting in a significant economic loss.