Medieval Spain: A Historical and Social Overview
Historical Context (5th-15th Centuries)
Early Middle Ages (5th-8th Centuries)
The Middle Ages in the Iberian Peninsula began with the Barbarian invasions that replaced Roman power. The Visigoths took control, imposing their laws and customs but blending with the Latin culture. This period saw the rise of important figures like Saint Isidore of Seville. In the 8th century, the Arab invasion led to the start of the Reconquista, a long period of Christian reconquest that lasted until the end of the 15th century.
High Middle Ages (8th-11th Centuries)
Following the Battle of Covadonga, small Christian kingdoms emerged in the north, including Asturias with its capital Oviedo. The dominant religion was the Visigothic or Mozarabic Latin Rite. The Romance languages began to develop from Vulgar Latin. Pre-Romanesque art flourished. The kingdoms of Navarre, Castile, Leon, Aragon, and Catalonia were established. The Camino de Santiago attracted French pilgrims, leading to the replacement of the Mozarabic Rite with the Roman or Gregorian Rite. Latin literature continued, and the first Romance literary works appeared (jarchas, cantares de gesta, and troubadour lyrics).
Late Middle Ages (12th-15th Centuries)
12th-13th Centuries
In 1212, the Christian kingdoms united to defeat the Almoravids (the last major Mozarabic invasion). King Ferdinand III declared Castilian the official language of administration and culture. Intense intellectual activity flourished, with schools of Jewish, Christian, and Muslim translators who rendered works of Hellenic and Oriental antiquity into Castilian. Mendicant religious orders emerged, reforming Christian monastic life. The High Gothic style dominated art and architecture. The first universities were founded in Salamanca, Palencia, and Seville. Gonzalo de Berceo composed the first Castilian verses.
14th Century
Several plagues and famines significantly reduced the population and impacted agriculture. Foreign trade in wool and mineral exploitation grew, but the emerging bourgeoisie did not yet hold significant influence. The nobility amassed wealth and power. Scholastic doctrine, promoted by religious orders, prevailed in philosophy. The Western Schism within the Church weakened its authority.
15th Century
The nobility gained more privileges, and chivalric ideals permeated society. The succession to the throne was contested, leading to the War of the Castilian Succession. Isabella I of Castile and Ferdinand II of Aragon eventually reigned, ushering in a period of territorial expansion and political pacification. The Church focused on its internal theological problems and divisions, fostering the development of courtly poetry in literary circles. Contact with the Italian Renaissance introduced new artistic and intellectual influences, leading to a clash between medieval and Renaissance visions that culminated in the masterpiece “La Celestina.” The invention of printing (1450) revolutionized the dissemination of knowledge.
Social Context
Feudalism dominated the Early Middle Ages. Land ownership was concentrated in the hands of the nobility and the Church, with peasants working the land and owing allegiance to their lords. Society was divided into three estates: nobility, clergy, and commoners.
Nobility
The nobility held economic, military, and political power. They controlled the land and the peasants who worked it. Gradually, some nobles transitioned from warriors to cultured courtiers (e.g., Juan Manuel, Jorge Manrique).
Clergy
The clergy dedicated their lives to the Church, residing in convents and monasteries. They played a crucial role in preserving culture by copying texts in codices (pre-printing books) and safeguarding classical thought. Monks also contributed to new literary trends like troubadour poetry and epic poems, as well as artistic styles like Romanesque and Gothic.
Commoners
The commoners, primarily peasants, worked the land and lived under the authority of the nobility and clergy. They lacked access to education and lived in poverty. Towards the end of the Middle Ages, some peasants migrated to cities to engage in trade and crafts, leading to urban growth and economic development. This gave rise to a new social class, the bourgeoisie, which gained influence in culture and economy by the 15th century. Muslims, Christians, and Jews coexisted in the Iberian Peninsula, with Mozarabs living in Muslim-controlled areas and Mudéjars in reconquered territories. Jews primarily resided in cities.
Medieval Literature
Latin was the language of learning, although Romance languages were spoken. Most Castilian texts before the 13th century originated from popular oral traditions. In the 13th century, authors began writing in the vernacular instead of Latin. Literary transmission was largely oral, resulting in a spontaneous, expressive language. Realism was a prominent feature, often with a moralizing or didactic purpose. Recurring themes included religion (the Bible, lives of saints, Marian devotions), death (with an emphasis on the afterlife), fortune (its capricious influence on human lives), the heroic world of knights, and courtly love.
Courtly Love
The courtly love movement (11th-13th centuries) gave rise to troubadour poetry. Poets expressed their love for an idealized lady, declaring themselves her vassal. The lady was typically unattainable due to social status or marriage. Courtly love emphasized emotional and spiritual connection rather than physical intimacy. The poet’s unrequited love often led to despair or frustration. The language of courtly love incorporated religious and mythological imagery, introducing a pagan concept of love into medieval society.
Religious Vision and Cultural Coexistence
The Church’s influence permeated all aspects of medieval life, promoting a theocentric worldview. God and religion played a central role in art, culture, and daily life. With the rise of the bourgeoisie, more emphasis was placed on material and practical matters, gradually shifting society away from its predominantly religious focus. The Iberian Peninsula witnessed the coexistence of Muslims, Christians, and Jews, shaping its unique cultural landscape.