Medieval to Early Modern Europe: Society and Power
Middle Ages (476 AD – 1492 AD)
Two Periods
- High Middle Ages
- Late Middle Ages
Feudalism
In the feudal system, the lord would grant the vassal protection and justice for him and his goods, including lands known as the fief. In return, the vassal would pledge loyalty to the lord, provide military service, and pay a ransom in case of kidnapping.
Estate System
Society was divided into three estates: the nobility (those who fought), the clergy (those who prayed), and the peasantry (those who worked).
Changes in Feudal Europe (11th, 12th, 13th Centuries)
This period saw increased agricultural production, leading to a surplus.
Commercial Revolution
Trade flourished in cities, giving rise to fairs. Bankers facilitated trade by exchanging money and providing loans with interest.
Burgos
These were small villages inhabited by the bourgeoisie, including merchants, artisans, and bankers who sought business opportunities, wealth, and comfort.
Transition from the Old Regime to the New Regime
- The Old Regime was characterized by legal inequality among subjects, while the New Regime established legal equality, though not necessarily social or political equality.
- The Old Regime initially featured an autocratic and theoretically absolute monarchy. The New Regime established a liberal order, seeking institutions to guarantee both collective social order and individual freedom.
- The Old Regime’s society was based on limited political intervention by subjects, except at the monarch’s request. The New Regime introduced political participation into the collective life of subjects.
Absolutism
Under absolutism, the King held hereditary power, concentrated all authority, and appointed officials known as “subjects.” The King was supported by a standing army financed by the bourgeoisie and a bureaucracy of administrative officials.
Characteristics of Royal Power
- Divine Origin: The King’s power was believed to be divinely ordained.
- Concentration of Powers: The King held legislative, executive, and judicial authority.
According to Bossuet
- Sacred Monarchy: Kings were considered God’s lieutenants on Earth, and opposing their will was seen as opposing God’s will.
- Paternal: The King was expected to govern his subjects like a father.
- Absolute: The King was not accountable to anyone.
- Rational: The King should make decisions based on rational thought, not whims.
Thomas Hobbes, an absolutist thinker, argued that before the organization of human societies, people lived in disorder and constant war. To escape this state, they surrendered their rights to a single ruler (the King) for governance.
Mercantilism
Mercantilism aimed to strengthen the nation through the accumulation of precious metals, either through mining or by selling goods abroad.
New Ideas (18th Century)
The 18th century, also known as the Century of Progress, saw the rise of new ideas such as freedom, progress, the importance of the individual, and justice. These ideas were championed by the bourgeoisie and fueled by trade, wealth, and a desire for greater freedom.
Thinkers of the Enlightenment
Montesquieu
Advocated for the separation of powers into executive, legislative, and judicial branches to prevent tyranny. He proposed a limited monarchy.
John Locke
Proposed a limited, parliamentary monarchy where the King shared power with Parliament. He defended natural rights inherent to all individuals from birth: life (the fundamental right), liberty, and property. He considered the legislature to be the supreme power and advocated for the idea of a social contract.
Rousseau
Believed that the origin of inequality was private property, which he saw as a source of unhappiness. He envisioned a civil society composed of all members without differences, where the law represented the general will and the people held sovereign power.
Voltaire
Championed tolerance and civil liberties, advocating for the prohibition of arbitrary detention and torture, the abolition of the death penalty, proportionality of punishment to the crime, and freedom of speech and the written word.