Mental Skills Training in Sports: Enhancing Performance
Potential Problem Areas in Implementing Mental Training Programs
Page 379
- Overcoming player reluctance about participating in a mental training program
- Spending too little time with individual athletes in a team setting
- Gaining the trust of the athletes
- Making sure athletes systematically practice their skills
- Lacking knowledge about the specific sport or presenting problem
- Maintaining contact with athletes throughout a competitive season
- Getting full cooperation from the coaching staff or organization
Mental Skills Likely to Be Included in the Program
Page 371, Table 17-1
Mental Skills for Athletes
- Foundation Skills:
- Achievement drive
- Self-awareness
- Productive thinking
- Self-confidence
- Performance Skills:
- Perceptual-cognitive skill
- Attentional focus
- Energy management
- Personal Development Skills:
- Identity achievement
- Interpersonal competence
- Team Skills:
- Leadership
- Communication
- Cohesion
- Team confidence
Chapter 19: Cultural Competence
Page 423
Different levels of cultural competence for a sport psychologist:
- Cultural Destructiveness: Characterized by policies, actions, and beliefs that are damaging to cultures.
- Cultural Incapacity: Not intending to be culturally destructive, but lacking the ability to respond effectively to diverse people (e.g., bias in hiring practices, lowered expectations).
- Cultural Blindness: Philosophy of being unbiased and that all people are the same (e.g., encouraging assimilation, blaming individuals for not “fitting in”).
- Cultural Pre-competence: Desire, but no clear plan to achieve cultural competence.
- Cultural Competence: Respect and recognition for diversity, a genuine understanding of cultural differences (e.g., seek training and knowledge to prevent biases from affecting work, collaboration with diverse communities, willingness to make adaptations, continued training, and commitment to work effectively with diverse groups).
- Cultural Proficiency: Culture held in high esteem, and it is understood to be an integral part of who we are (e.g., conducting research to add to the knowledge base, disseminating information on proven practices and interventions, engaging in advocacy with diverse groups that support the culturally competent system).
Chapter 20: Specific Athlete-Related Issues
Page 439
Issues include sexual orientation, eating disorders, substance abuse, anger, romantic and family issues, etc.
Identity
An athlete’s hopes for the future and social support from others may revolve around the sport. Negative identity is the acceptance and valuing of an identity that is generally disapproved of by society. “Dumb jock”
Sexual Orientation and Abusive Environments
Athletes may struggle with coming out, abuse, and discrimination. This raises fears in athletes about getting less playing time, being kicked off teams, being harassed, and being physically abused if orientations were made public.
Sex- and Health-Related Issues
Athletes may engage in risk-taking behaviors, including sexual behavior, leading to higher STD rates and more partners.
Eating Disorders
Eating disorders may be higher in athletes than in the general population.
Alcohol/Substance Use
Athletes may consume more alcohol than the general population. There is often denial or defensiveness around use. Athletes may also use anabolic steroids.
Anger and Aggression Control
Athletes may have difficulty controlling anger and aggression.
Romantic and Family Relationship Issues
Many athletes are away from friends and family for long periods. This can cause loneliness, anxiety, and depression. Athletes spend a lot of time training, which can cause issues with relationships.
Page 435, Box 20-1
Considerations for Deciding If an Issue Warrants Referral
- How long has the issue existed?
- What is the severity of the issue?
- How does the issue relate to other factors in the person’s life?
- Does the person display unusual emotions or behaviors around the issue?
- How well is the athlete using existing interventions or coping strategies?
- Does the practitioner have the knowledge, skills, and competencies to address the issue?
Chapter 21: Physical, Behavioral, Emotional, and Cognitive Signs of Drug Use
Page 465
Physical Signs
- Bloodshot eyes
- Dark circles under eyes
- Profuse sweating
- Heightened sensitivity to touch, smell, and sound
- Chronic fatigue
- Trouble maintaining normal body temperature (always feeling too hot or cold)
Behavioral Signs
- Unusually secretive behavior
- Increased tardiness to practice and school
- Apathetic attitude about school
- Poor school performance
- Social isolation
- Often broke or out of money
- Irresponsible
- High risk-taking behaviors
- Change in dress style
- New circle of friends
- Marked changes in usual or normal ways of behaving (e.g., unwarranted challenges to authority, isolation, increased arguments, new friends)
Emotional Signs
- Extreme mood swings
- Irritability
- Highly reactive
- Less affectionate
- Chronic physical fatigue
- Heightened aggression/hostility
- Recurrent depressive episodes
Cognitive Signs
- Decreased mental capabilities
- Disordered thinking
- Increased forgetfulness
- Paranoid thoughts that others are out to get him or her
- Denial of problems
- Superman complex (i.e., sense of invulnerability)
- Shortened attention span
- Thoughts of suicide
Substances Banned in Sports
Page 452
Performance-enhancing drugs such as anabolic steroids, and recreational drugs such as cocaine or marijuana.
Chapter 22: Why Does Athlete Burnout Happen?
Page 477
Athlete burnout can be caused by overtraining, psychosocial sport stress, or self-determination theory, and sport entrapment.
Athlete Burnout Dimensions, Definitions, and Symptoms
Page 477, Table 22-1
- Emotional & Physical Exhaustion: Emotional and physical fatigue stemming from the psychological and physical demands associated with training and competing.
- Excessively tired or lethargic
- Emotionally “drained”
- Unable to perform non-sport activities due to fatigue
- Reduced Sense of Accomplishment: Inefficacy and a tendency to evaluate oneself negatively in terms of sport performance and accomplishments.
- Decreased feelings of sport achievement
- Performing below personal standards
- Consistent negative self-evaluation
- Sport Devaluation: Negative, detached attitude toward sport reflected by lack of concern for sport and performance quality.
- Reduced concern for sport and performance quality
- Question the value/meaning of sport
- Resentful attitude toward sport
Chapter 23: How Do Athletes Respond to Injury?
Page 499
A study by Mainwaring et al. (2004) sheds some light on athletes’ reactions to injury. Following concussion, athletes experienced depression, confusion, and overall mood disturbance. The authors postulate that mood changes are due to the injury itself, not the removal from sport, as they experienced a normalization of mood before their return to sport; this finding has been supported by other research as well (Hutchison, Mainwaring, Comper, Richards, & Bisschop, 2009). Others also notice changes in injured athletes. According to a survey of 482 certified athletic trainers, 47 percent believed that every injured athlete suffers negative psychological effects such as stress and anxiety, anger, treatment compliance problems, and depression (Larson, Starkey, & Zaichkowsky, 1996). In addition, 24 percent of the trainers referred an athlete for counseling related to their injury. Athletic trainers are continuing to recognize the psychological impact of injury in athletes; 74 percent of athletic trainers who responded to a survey by Clement, Granquist, and Avrinen-Barrow (2013) reported that athletes experienced psychological effects along with physical injuries, most commonly stress/anxiety, anger, and issues related to treatment adherence. Unfortunately, most athletic trainers in the United States do not have easy access to a sport psychology consultant—only 20 percent in one study (Clement et al., 2013) and 25 percent in a second study (Cramer Roh & Perna, 2000); however, they did use them (i.e., 84 percent who had access made referrals). A different survey of athletic trainers found a similarly high rate of referral (71.6 percent) of athletes for sport psychology services (Zakrajsek, Martin, & Wrisberg, 2015). plus a higher rate of access to a sport psychology consultant (63 percent). Sports medicine physicians are also aware of the problems that arise from injury—in a survey of 827 practitioners, 80 percent reported discussing psychological issues with injured athletes (Mann, Grana, Indelicato, O’Neill, & George, 2007). These practitioners also noted a lack of sport psychology consultants in their geographic areas, and 75 percent rarely or never referred athletes to sport psychologists (Mann et al., 2007).
Mental Skills to Help Athletes Recover from Injury
Page 507
Types of mental skills that have been found useful:
- Thought stoppage
- Imagery
- Goal-setting
- Relaxation techniques
Chapter 17: Implementing a Mental Training Program
When to Implement the Program
Page 362
The ideal time for initially implementing training may be when individuals are just beginning to participate in the sport. The least desirable time is after the competitive season has started and the athlete is facing a string of competitions in quick succession.
When to Practice Psychological Skills
Page 363
Athletes should begin psychological skills training during the off-season and preseason. It should be practiced for the first 15 to 30 minutes of practice, which is often a good time for training.
Self-Regulation: A Key to Effective Mental Training
Page 364
One of the critical aspects of successfully implementing a mental training program is the use of self-regulation. Self-regulation encompasses the processes by which people manage their own behaviors that are directed toward specific goals. Being able to regulate and control one’s behavior is an essential part of any athlete’s mental training plan, and this process has five specific phases (Kirschenbaum, 1997).
- Problem Identification: This phase encourages you to evaluate progress in your sport thoroughly and to remain open to new suspensions about all aspects of performance. For example, you might become aware that you lose your concentration by thinking negatively at critical junctures during competition. This awareness is a critical first step on the road to improvement.
- Commitment to Change: This usually involves developing specific plans and setting goals.
- Execution of Self-Regulated Change: After problems are identified and commitments are made, actions must be initiated so that positive steps toward goal attainment can occur. This execution of self-regulated change is the third step. It can be viewed as a feedback loop with self-monitoring leading to self-evaluation, which in turn leads to self-consecration (Kirschenbaum, 1997). For example, you might monitor progress toward a goal of improving your average bowling score from 125 to 135. After several weeks, you could evaluate whether you achieved your goal. If you did, you might treat yourself to a great dinner; this would be an example of positive consecration.
- Manage the Environment: Although self-regulation implies a solitary pursuit of goals, in sport you also have to manage the environment (step 4), which might include teammates, friends, and coaches, as well as specific playing and practice conditions.
- Generalization: The long-term goal of self-regulation is to maintain behavior change over time and across different situations. This fifth step is called generalization. It is often difficult to achieve because it requires dedicated, consistent, and systematic practice of mental skills over time.
Setting Up a Mental Training Program
Page 370
- How much practice time will be given on average each week to mental skills training?
- How many weeks of practice are available?
- Will there still be time to practice mental skills after the competitive season starts or after the first couple of losses?
- How interested are the athletes in receiving mental skills training?