Mercantilism, Society, and the Decline of the Spanish Empire
Mercantilism
Mercantilism is based on state intervention in the economy. Key characteristics include the accumulation of precious metals, maximizing exports, minimizing imports, and protecting domestic industries by avoiding raw material imports.
Stratified Society
This represents the old regime, where members have specific tasks defined by function rather than monetary compensation. These are divided into estates:
Privileges
Those with privileges, such as nobles, counts, and clergy, do not pay taxes.
Third Estate
The third estate consists of taxpayers, the socially marginalized, and the rural bourgeoisie.
Decline of the Spanish Empire
The decline of the Spanish Empire began with the Habsburgs under Felipe III and Felipe IV, and continued under Carlos II.
Main Causes
- Abandonment of agriculture, leading to less food production.
- Heavy taxes.
- Protection of the Mesta (guild of sheep owners).
- General economic stagnation.
Crisis: Population Decline
Demographic decline, famine, and epidemics led to depopulation in the center of the peninsula, while the population grew at the periphery.
Social Crisis
An increasing number of monks, soldiers, beggars, and rogues emerged. The aristocracy failed as a ruling class, validos (royal favorites) arose, religiosity declined, and people sought refuge in fantasy.
Triumph of English Parliamentarism
This involved a constitutional monarchy and parliamentary system, resulting from the English Revolution of 1640 (Cromwell). It marked political and religious transitions and a confrontation between absolutists and parliamentarians.
The Thirty Years’ War
This was a religious conflict between Catholics and German Protestants, as well as a political confrontation. It ended in 1648 with the Peace of Westphalia. Spain continued to struggle with France until the Peace of the Pyrenees in 1659, when France replaced Spain as the dominant power in Europe.
Consequences
- Return to religious freedom.
- Holland gained independence from Spain.
- France became the hegemonic power.
- Three states dominated Europe: Holland, France, and Germany.
Triangle Trade
From Europe, drapes and guns were traded to Africa for slaves, who were then transported to America and exchanged for cotton, sugar, and snuff.
Baroque Art
Originating in Italy, Baroque art opposed the balance and serenity of Renaissance art. Its most pronounced features are grandeur, dynamism, expressive power, and rich decoration. Unlike the measured, sober, rational, and logical nature of Renaissance art, Baroque emphasized movement, a desire for novelty, a love of the infinite, and contrasts. It aimed to convince and fascinate.
The term “Baroque” was initially associated with a lack of logic and exaggeration, referring to an irregularly shaped pearl. It meant extravagant, deformed, abnormal, unusual, absurd, and irregular. In the second half of the century, Baroque art was characterized by:
- Movement (e.g., corrugated walls).
- Suggested action (e.g., a figure in a violent action).
- The tendency to use the infinite (e.g., a path that disappears into the horizon).
- The importance of light.
- A taste for theatricality, mixing architecture, sculpture, and painting.
Baroque Painting
Features included naturalism, strong expression, and the use of contrasting light and dark (chiaroscuro).
Notable artists include Caravaggio, Rembrandt, and Rubens.
Baroque Sculpture
Characteristics included theatricality and movement. Notable sculptors included Gregorio Fernández, Martínez Montañés, and Alonso Cano.