Mesopotamia and Egypt: Ancient Civilizations
Mesopotamia: Beginnings of Civilization
The invention of writing appeared in Mesopotamia over 5,000 years ago, marking the end of prehistory and the beginning of history. Writing served to store information about trade, population, and more.
Settlements arose near large rivers like the Tigris and Euphrates, fostering fertile lands. The king held supreme power, making laws, leading the army, and performing religious functions. Civil servants assisted the king, and large armies protected the lands.
Mesopotamian society was hierarchical, divided into privileged groups (aristocracy, priests, scribes) who owned land and wealth, and non-privileged groups (peasants, craftsmen, merchants, servants, slaves) who were poorer.
Kings built impressive structures like palaces, temples, tombs, and canals (ziggurats, pyramids). Major periods include:
- Sumerian Period (3000 BC – 2330 BC): Independent cities ruled by high priests.
- Akkadian Empire (2330 BC – 1800 BC): King Sargon I.
- Babylonian Empire (1800 BC – 1356 BC): Hammurabi.
- Assyrian Empire (1356 BC – 612 BC): Ashurbanipal.
- Neo-Babylonian Empire (612 BC – 539 BC): Nebuchadnezzar II.
Mesopotamia, meaning “between rivers,” was situated between the Tigris and Euphrates. Important cities included Ur, Assur, Nippur, and Babylon. Its strategic location facilitated trade but also made it vulnerable to invasions.
Cuneiform Writing and Hammurabi’s Code
Cuneiform writing involved making wedge-shaped marks on clay tablets with a reed. It was used for political and theological texts.
The Hammurabi Code, one of the earliest known law codes, was engraved on a rock around 1800 BC. It established the principle of retaliation, “an eye for an eye.”
Social Structure and Religion
The social structure included:
- Aristocracy: The king’s family and nobility owned most land and held high government positions.
- Priests: Controlled religious rituals and owned some land.
- Civil Servants and Scribes: Literate individuals who recorded laws and transactions.
- Peasants: Rented land around cities and cultivated crops like beans, wheat, and barley.
- Craftsmen: Worked in workshops as carpenters, jewelers, etc.
- Women: Considered men’s property, with lower wages if employed.
Mesopotamians were polytheistic, believing in many gods who resembled humans. Temples served as earthly residences for gods, some built on stepped pyramids called ziggurats. Education was limited to male children from wealthy families, focusing on science and theology.
Architecture and Art
Mesopotamians used brick and adobe for building. Sculptures featured kings, gods, animals, and bulls with human heads. Reliefs depicted political and religious scenes.
Ancient Egypt: Gift of the Nile
Ancient Egyptians settled near the Nile River due to its fertile land. Annual floods deposited mud, enriching the soil. The Nile served as a vital means of communication and transportation.
Pharaohs and Society
The pharaoh, the all-powerful king, passed laws, ruled the country, owned land, and controlled trade and armies. Pharaohs were considered gods with magical powers, symbolized by ornaments like headdresses, crooks, vultures, serpents, beards, and whips.
Society included:
- Noblemen: Received land and treasures from the pharaoh, governing provinces.
- Priests: Controlled religious rituals and owned land.
- Scribes: Literate individuals managing official documents.
- Peasants: Rented land from pharaohs, priests, and noblemen.
- Craftsmen: Made sculptures, pottery, papyrus, and linen.
- Merchants: Traded wood, minerals, and perfumes.
- Servants: Free individuals working for a salary.
- Slaves: War prisoners with no rights, working on monuments, in mines, or as soldiers.
- Women: Enjoyed more rights and freedom than in other ancient societies; some became pharaohs like Cleopatra.
Egyptian Kingdoms
Key periods include:
- Old Kingdom: Lasted about 1,000 years, with Memphis as the capital, ending in 2200 BC.
- Middle Kingdom: Lasted about 400 years, with Thebes as the capital, ending in 1800 BC.
- New Kingdom: Lasted about 500 years, ending in 1100 BC, featuring pharaohs like Thutmose I, Amenhotep III, Akhenaten, Tutankhamun, and Ramesses II.
Egyptians were polytheistic, worshipping gods like Ra, Amun, Atum, Isis, Osiris, and Horus.