Metaphysics: Materialism, Dualism, and the Nature of Reality
The term ‘metaphysics’ originated from the ordering of Aristotle’s works, placed after his ‘physics’ writings, signifying ‘what comes after physics’. Aristotle defined it as ‘first philosophy,’ the study of ‘first principles and first causes,’ encompassing questions about reality, essence, substance, and being.
Materialism
Materialism is a doctrine that denies the existence of spiritual beings or an independent ideal world. Consequently, it also denies the influence of such beings on physical world events. The concept of matter is complex, extending beyond simple, vulgar notions. Matter and energy are not the same but can be seen as two aspects of reality. Matter can present itself in various forms, such as water, oxygen, or iron.
Strict, radical materialism can be concluded from fragments, such as:
- Fragment 30: ‘This world, the same for all, no god or man has made, but it always was, is, and will be an ever-living fire, kindling in measures and going out in measures.’
- Fragment 53: ‘War is the father of all and king of all. Some he has made gods, others men; some he has made slaves, others free.’
Democritus’ materialism was later adopted by the atomistic corporealism of the Epicurean school.
Pluralism and the Structure of Reality
A philosophical dictionary defines it as a doctrine on the structure of reality, characterized by its opposition to materialistic monism and idealistic or spiritualistic monism. Pluralism postulates the uniqueness of the developing world in general ontological terms. It denies the monistic theory that everything influences everything else and the pluralistic view that nothing influences anything.
Matter can be categorized into:
- Primogenérica matter: bodily, such as solids or incorporeal, such as electromagnetic waves.
- Segundogenérica matter: subjects of operations, projects, and social and political actions of men, memories, desires, or wills.
- Terciogénerica matter: relationships expressed in geometric theorems.
Idealism and the Denial of Matter
Some argue that there is no material world beyond perceptions, only what can be perceived. This claim, while not strictly Berkeleyan, is speculative and rooted in a pastoral vision. Denying the existence of matter is a way to negate atheism, given that atheism is often defined as materialistic.
Dualism
Dualism holds that there are two realities: the material world and the world of spirits. Examples include the Pythagorean view that the soul is mixed with the body. The soul existed before birth, while the body belongs to the material world, and the soul can be contaminated by it.
European Cultural Background
In the European cultural background, the prevailing view is that God constantly creates finite spirits from ‘nothing.’ These spirits are autonomous, separate substances with a relationship to God and other souls.
If God and spirits communicate, it is because they are part of the same reality. Consequently, there are two rational possibilities: either everything is matter, or everything is spirit.