Metaphysics: Ontology and Epistemology
Metaphysical Knowledge
156 Topics of Metaphysics. The word “metaphysical” was coined after the works of Aristotle, referring to a book that followed his work on physics, dealing with the first principles of all sciences. The term eventually came to denote the set of philosophical knowledge.
- Science: Sciences have more precisely defined subjects of study, continually refine their testing procedures, and are expressed in precise language. The strength of scientific evidence is so powerful that it leads to agreement, as seen in accepted physical theories like quantum physics and relativity.
- Philosophy: In contrast, there is often no definitive evidence in philosophy. Philosophers disagree on issues, language, methods, and results. As Aristotle noted, science looks to metaphysics.
Philosophical ideas deal with matters that have a profound impact on people’s lives, making it crucial to assess their truth. Philosophical theories are often insufficiently supported, but they can help us improve and enrich our perspective on problems, though they do not offer personal truths.
157 Large Regions of Metaphysical Knowledge:
- Ontology: The theory of reality in general.
- Gnoseology (or Theory of Knowledge): The theory of the knowing subject.
- Ethics: The theory of human action.
Ontology is derived from the Greek word “ontos” (being). To define a science, one must specify the object studied and the point of view from which it is studied. The ancestors referred to these as the material object and the formal object. The material object of ontology is the set of all beings, and its formal purpose is their study. As Aristotle stated, we must bear in mind that being is said in many ways.
Ontology and Epistemology
158 The first task of ontology is to clarify terms. An introduction to ontology can clarify some terms used to discuss all things. Many of the basic concepts are designated as follows:
- Being: Has two meanings: existence and the relationship between subject and predicate.
- Substance/Accident: Substance has independent existence; accident is a quality requiring a substance to exist.
- Subject/Form: Refers to the material composing a thing and the form, arrangement, or structure.
- Essence/Existence: Essence is the set of necessary notes for a thing to be what it is; existence is how that content is in reality.
- Cause and Effect: Cause is what produces something; effect is the result of a cause.
159 The Transition from Ontology to Epistemology:
Two fundamental concepts in ontology that need clarification are the real/unreal and, in epistemology, the knowing subject and the known object.
- Real: Something that exists independently of someone experiencing or knowing it.
The emergence of consciousness introduces a new kind of reality. Conscious phenomena exist; there are physical realities and mental realities. For Descartes, these mentally aware realities were the most clear and obvious. Everything known is present in the mind intentionally, unrealistically, even real things. This led some philosophers to suggest that the study of human consciousness should be the starting point of philosophy. Real beings, consciousness, and intentional beings exist in consciousness. Everything in our mind is there unrealistically, sometimes referring to real things and other times to ideal things.