Mexican History: Independence, Reform, and Revolution

Posted on Mar 18, 2025 in History

Mexico: Independence, Reform, and Revolution

Independence and Early Challenges (1821-1830)

  • Mexican independence, initiated by priests Hidalgo and Morelos, was finalized by Agustin Iturbide under conservative auspices in 1821.
  • Ships began entering Mexico in 1823, but a trade deficit emerged (more imports than exports), covered by the export of precious metals. This led to:
    • Bankruptcy
    • Unsafe roads
    • A drain of gold and silver
    • Costly bureaucracy
  • Foreign loans in 1824-1825 increased national debt.
  • Partial recovery occurred as old mines reopened, but technical problems hindered reconstruction.
  • The Banco de Avio, established in 1830, provided some assistance.
  • Shortages of capital and a lack of consistent policy for domestic industry persisted.

Politics (1823-1848)

  • 1823: The fall of Iturbide and the establishment of a republican government.
  • 1824: A new constitution favored both liberals and conservatives. Guadalupe Victoria became the first president.
  • Establishment of a national legislature with an upper and lower house.
  • Creation of a civil bureaucracy and a provincial middle class.
  • The Church lost its monopoly on education, but Catholicism remained the official religion.
  • 1825: Anglo-American competition for economic and political influence in Mexico intensified, favoring small groups and influencing their reform programs.
  • The Liberal party split into two factions: *moderados* (who favored gradual change) and *puros* (who advocated for anticlerical reforms).
  • 1824-1833: “Liberals” (led by Mora) pushed for the abolition of privileges for the army and the Church, secularization of the clerical University of Mexico, reduction of the army, and the creation of a civil militia. The central government promoted education and economic development.
  • 1834-1854: “Conservatives” (led by Santa Anna) regained influence, reducing departments and ensuring upper-class control in politics.
  • Conservative neglect contributed to the loss of Texas in 1836 and nearly the Yucatan Peninsula.
  • American colonists led by Sam Houston triggered the American War (1846-1848).
  • Loss of California and New Mexico.
  • The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (1848) ceded Texas, California, and New Mexico to the United States in exchange for $15 million.
  • The California Gold Rush led to attacks on Native Californians, who were considered Mexican citizens. This resulted in the murder of natives throughout the territory and the violation of their rights under the treaty, a situation that persists to this day.

La Reforma, Civil War, and the French Intervention (1846-1867)

  • 1846-1853: Liberals, influenced by Rousseau and French utopian socialist thought, emerged. Melchor Ocampo and Benito Juarez led a renovated liberalism in the movement known as La Reforma.
  • La Reforma aimed to dismantle feudal vestiges and establish capitalism. Its ideology challenged the latifundio (large estates), defended labor rights, and promoted women’s rights.
  • Ley Juarez: Affirmed the state’s right to limit clerical and military *fueros* (privileges) to matters of internal discipline.
  • Ley Lerdo: Reduced the Church’s power by restricting its land ownership. It aimed for:
    • Payment of taxes
    • Creation of a rural middle class
    • Division of land from the church
  • However, the land primarily went to large landowners, excluding indigenous villages. Land-grabbers emerged.
  • French intervention occurred due to Ley Lerdo, which was applied to native villages, leading to the expansion of the middle class.
  • 1857-1860: The Three Years’ War, a conflict between conservatives and liberals, devastated foreign property and led to demands for compensation.
  • The Liberals won, but the French army established itself in Mexico, controlling most of the national territory under Archduke Ferdinand Maximilian of Habsburg.
  • Liberals fought the French (Cinco de Mayo), achieving victory but without significant change.
  • 1865: The French abandoned Mexico. Maximilian was found guilty of treason and executed.

Postwar Transformation of La Reforma (1867-1876)

  • Benito Juarez became president in 1867.
  • He dismissed two-thirds of the army and developed a public school system.
  • He implemented capitalism, effectively ending La Reforma.
  • 1876: Porfirio Diaz rose to power, promoting an ideology of freedom, internal improvements, a docile labor force, a raised aristocracy, and a favorable economic climate.