Middle Ages, Humanism, and the Renaissance: A Historical Overview

Posted on Oct 24, 2024 in Religion

Middle Ages

The Middle Ages, a historical period spanning from the fall of the Roman Empire in 476 CE to the late 15th century, marked a significant transition in European history. This era concluded with pivotal events like the discovery of America and the fall of the Byzantine Empire.

The Rise of Islam

In the 7th century, Islam emerged in the Arabian Peninsula, preached by Muhammad, who worshipped one god called Allah. Followers of Islam are called Muslims.

Feudal Society

Feudal society was rigidly structured into three estates, determined by birth:

  1. Royalty (King/Queen): The monarch held ultimate authority.
  2. Nobility: Nobles held titles and were responsible for military defense.
  3. Clergy: Religious figures dedicated to prayer and spiritual matters.

The royalty and nobility were the privileged estates, enjoying exemptions from labor, taxes, and the right to bear arms. The Third Estate, comprising everyone else, worked to support the privileged classes.

The Crusades

During the 11th and 13th centuries, religious and military expeditions known as the Crusades aimed to reclaim holy lands, particularly Jerusalem. These campaigns resulted in widespread death, looting, and destruction.

The Rise of Guilds and Monarchies

Artisans organized into guilds. From the 12th century onward, kings began consolidating their power, fueled by a thriving economy that allowed for increased tax revenue and stronger armies. Kings allied with cities to counter the influence of the landed gentry. Courts and parliaments were established to address matters of taxation, war, and peace.

Humanism

Humanism, a cultural renewal movement originating in 15th-century Italy and spreading across Europe in the 16th century, emphasized:

  • The exaltation of man as a unique being with reason and freedom.
  • A renewed interest in Greco-Roman culture.
  • A focus on science and progress, fostering a scientific spirit.
  • The use of local languages.
  • A shift towards secularization, with man, not God, becoming the central focus.
  • The invention of printing.
  • The emergence of academies.

The expansion of humanism was facilitated by academies, universities, and the printing press. Academies, supported by patrons, focused on language and the translation of ancient manuscripts. Universities played a crucial role in the formation and transmission of new knowledge.

The Reformation

Initiated by Martin Luther, an Augustinian monk, the Reformation challenged Church practices, particularly the sale of indulgences. Luther argued that only God could forgive sins. The construction of St. Peter’s Basilica was largely funded by the sale of indulgences. Luther’s excommunication and subsequent support from German monks and princes led to conflict between Emperor Charles I and several German states.

Causes of the Reformation

  • Relaxed Church customs.
  • The sale of indulgences.
  • The search for a new religious path.

Characteristics of Protestantism

  • Salvation through faith.
  • The universal priesthood, rejecting the Church as a state and emphasizing religion as a personal matter.
  • The Bible as the sole source of religious knowledge.
  • Recognition of only baptism and communion as sacraments.

Impact of the Reformation

  • The division of Christianity.
  • The Counter-Reformation, including the Council of Trent, which reaffirmed doctrines such as salvation through good works, the seven sacraments, and forbade the sale of indulgences. It also led to the creation of seminaries, required bishops and priests to reside in their dioceses and parishes, and established the Society of Jesus.

The Renaissance

The Renaissance saw a rise in individualism and the cult of personal effort. Secularization continued, with religion losing its central place in cultural and spiritual life. The ideal man shifted from the medieval knight to the courtier—a cultured and refined warrior interested in music, literature, and art. The nobility gradually adopted a courtier lifestyle, abandoning feudal customs. Patrons played a vital role in supporting artists and financing their works.

Quattrocento (15th Century)

  • Architecture: Focused on creating rational space, with prominent figures like Brunelleschi and Alberti.
  • Sculpture: Emphasized the human form, with Donatello and Ghiberti as leading figures.
  • Painting: Featured the skillful use of perspective, with notable artists like Masaccio, Piero della Francesca, and Botticelli.

Cinquecento (16th Century)

  • Architecture: Highlighted by St. Peter’s Basilica, with contributions from Bramante and Michelangelo.
  • Sculpture: Dominated by Michelangelo, who sought to express emotions; other prominent sculptors included Benvenuto Cellini.
  • Painting: Featured masters like Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael, Michelangelo (Sistine Chapel), Giorgione, Titian, and Tintoretto.

Calvinism and Anglicanism

Calvinism: A Christian doctrine emphasizing God’s absolute sovereignty, developed by John Calvin.

Anglicanism: Describes the liturgical traditions of the Church of England, established by Henry VIII after separating from the Catholic Church.