Middle East and North Africa: Decolonization and Conflict
Middle East: Decolonization and Conflict
Post-World War I and the Mandate System
Following World War I, the Ottoman Empire dissolved. The Sykes-Picot Agreement (1916) between France and Britain secretly divided the region’s influence. The Balfour Declaration signaled British support for a Jewish homeland in Palestine. After the Ottoman defeat, France and the UK established mandates, recognized by the League of Nations.
The Birth of Israel and the Arab-Israeli Conflict
The mandate system ended after World War II, and Arab nations gained independence. However, Palestine’s situation was unique. The UN approved partitioning the territory between Arabs and Jews, leading to the formation of Israel. This immediately triggered the 1948 Arab-Israeli War, resulting in Israeli occupation of Palestinian territory. This war coincided with the 1956 Suez Crisis. The Six-Day War in 1967 saw Israel occupy Gaza, the West Bank, the Golan Heights, and Sinai. The 1973 Yom Kippur War ended with Israeli victories against Egypt and Syria. The Camp David Accords in 1978 led to Israel returning the Sinai Peninsula to Egypt in exchange for recognition.
Palestinian protests against the loss of their land led to the rise of terrorism, further destabilizing the region. Existing tensions were exacerbated by religious, cultural, and resource-based conflicts, particularly concerning water and oil.
North Africa: The Road to Independence
Early Independence Movements
North African nations were among the first to achieve full independence. A military coup in Egypt overthrew King Farouk, establishing a republic led by Gamal Abdel Nasser. France granted independence to Tunisia and Mauritania and negotiated with Spain regarding their protectorates over Morocco. The Algerian War of Independence (1954-1962) was a brutal conflict between Algerians and the French. The National Liberation Front (FLN) played a key role in the fight for independence. In 1962, French President Charles de Gaulle, after consolidating his presidential powers, ordered French withdrawal from Algeria.
The Rise of Arabism and Sub-Saharan African Independence
A strong sense of Islamic identity (Arabism) developed across North Africa. Meanwhile, British colonies in Sub-Saharan Africa largely achieved independence peacefully, although some violent episodes occurred. The Commonwealth offered a framework for integration and autonomy. However, in Southern Africa, European settlers in South Africa and Rhodesia unilaterally declared independence, establishing white minority rule and apartheid. South Africa also occupied Namibia. By 1961, all French colonies in Sub-Saharan Africa were independent and UN members. The Belgian Congo’s independence was followed by civil war. Equatorial Guinea gained independence from Spain in 1968. The Carnation Revolution in Portugal (1974) led to the end of Portuguese dictatorship, and in 1975, Angola and Mozambique gained independence.