Modernism and the Generation of ’98
Modernism and the Generation of ’98: Spain and the Western world experienced a turbulent period in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The liberal revolution of 1868, alternating liberal and conservative governments, cronyism, and the rise of the proletariat all contributed to this upheaval. Writers and intellectuals, inspired by figures like Larra and European thought, adopted provocative stances. French artistic movements like Parnassianism, Symbolism, and Impressionism also influenced them. Thinkers like Schopenhauer, Kierkegaard, Nietzsche, Bergson, and Freud, whose philosophies revolved around human existence, played a significant role.
Against this backdrop, Modernism and the Generation of ’98 emerged. The boundaries between these two movements are blurry, with some scholars arguing they are two sides of the same coin. Both desired renewal, but with different moods: the pure Modernists focused on aesthetic renewal, while the Generation of ’98, a term coined by Azorín in 1913, combined aesthetic concerns with a critical and sentimental view of Spain.
Modernism
Modernism in Latin America flourished in the early 20th century, introduced to Spain and Europe by Rubén Darío. It reacted against realism, championing the subjective value of art. Modernists defended cosmopolitanism while reaffirming Hispanic roots, seeking a universal present. They drew inspiration from classical mythology, indigenous cultures, Spanish-American historical figures, and the world of art and music. They also exalted sensual feelings to create an immersive atmosphere.
Common motifs included anthropomorphic figures (nymphs, princesses), landscapes (gardens, castles), and decorative elements (ornaments, jewelry). This thematic renewal was accompanied by formal experimentation, pursuing beauty through music, color, and light, enriched by symbolism and suggestion. Techniques like alliteration and parallelism were employed, and classical and Castilian meters were revived, paving the way for prose poetry and free verse.
Rubén Darío
Rubén Darío, particularly with his poetry collection Azul (1888), spearheaded this modernist aesthetic. Prominent symbols included blue (the color of dreams) and the swan (representing purity and mystery). In 1896, he published Prosas Profanas, a culmination of Modernism, exploring themes like pleasure, love, time, life, and death. Cantos de Vida y Esperanza (1905) introduced new themes and a more sober expression, reflecting a shift from aesthetic concerns to the disappointments of the real world.
Juan Ramón Jiménez
Juan Ramón Jiménez, marked by his obsessive pursuit of poetic perfection, continually revised his work, evolving towards a new poetic style that influenced the Generation of ’27. Modernist influences are evident in his early works, such as Arias Tristes, Elejías, and Solitudes, belonging to his sensitive phase, with recognizable influences from Modernism and French Symbolists, and an intimate tone reminiscent of Bécquer. This was followed by his intellectual or naked phase (Diario de un Poeta Recién Casado) and the sufficient or true phase (Dios Deseado y Deseando), where he shed what he called the “robes of Modernism.”
Ramón María del Valle-Inclán
Ramón María del Valle-Inclán’s work evolved from Modernism towards a critical style based on distortion and absurdity. His early works include the Sonatas in fiction and Aromas de Leyenda in poetry.
The Generation of ’98
The Generation of ’98, while retaining some modernist aspects (like impressionistic descriptions and nostalgic idealizations of landscapes), reacted against the prosaic style of 19th-century realism. Its key features include:
- The “Problem of Spain”: The central theme was the examination of national consciousness from subjective viewpoints.
- Existential Concerns: They focused on philosophical themes like the passage of time, death, the meaning of human existence, and faith.
- Lyrical Exaltation of Castile: They displayed a subjective and lyrical exaltation of the Castilian landscape and its people, coupled with a pessimistic critique of its backwardness and poverty.
- Renewal of Literary Language: Like the Modernists, they sought to renew literary language, rejecting rhetoric and embracing simplicity, careful form, and traditional words.
- Literary Influences: They admired Bécquer, considered Larra a precursor, and offered unique interpretations of Spanish classics and medieval literature.
Azorín
José Martínez Ruiz, known as Azorín, coined the term “Generation of ’98.” He deeply explored the realities of Spain, obsessed with time and the transience of life. His early novels, forming a trilogy, are characterized by minimal plot, a central character, and descriptive passages based on childhood and adolescent memories. Notable works include La Voluntad, Antonio Azorín, and Confesiones de un Pequeño Filósofo.