Modernism and the Generation of ’98
Modernism (Late 19th – Early 20th Century)
Origins and Influences
Modernism emerged as a reaction against literary realism. Key figures include Rubén Darío (Nicaragua) and José Martí (Cuba).
Characteristics of Modernist Poetry
- Musicality
- Sensory language (color, smell, touch)
- Innovative metaphors, similes, and synesthesia
Themes and Context
Common themes include melancholy, sadness, unrequited love, and eroticism. The context often involves idealized pasts (Middle Ages, Greco-Roman world), exotic locales (the East), and sophisticated cities like Paris.
Characters
Modernist characters are typically imaginary and sophisticated. Later stages explore themes of death and existential angst. The movement declined after World War I.
A Dry Elm
The poem describes an ancient elm tree on a hill by the Douro River, overrun by ants and abandoned by birds. The poet seeks inspiration from a green branch, hoping for renewal in spring.
Generation of ’98
Key Figures and Context
Key figures include Pío Baroja, Azorín, Miguel de Unamuno, and Ramiro de Maeztu, all born in the last quarter of the 19th century. This generation coincided with Modernism and was marked by the loss of Spain’s colonies, viewed as a political failure.
Evolution of Ideas
The Generation of ’98 initially expressed critical views of Spain’s political, economic, and social situation. Later, their focus shifted to philosophical themes like death and religion, the Spanish character, and literary theory. Most, except Baroja, became more conservative. Antonio Machado and Ramón del Valle-Inclán moved towards more radical (left-leaning) views, departing from Modernism and excelling in poetry (Machado) and theater (Valle-Inclán).
Theater
The Generation of ’98 attempted a new theatrical style focused on philosophical discussions of death, but it largely failed. Valle-Inclán, with his theory of the grotesque, was the exception, creating a truly impactful theater.
The Tree of Knowledge (Pío Baroja)
This novel portrays a disillusioned view of society, depicting unsympathetic, uneducated characters who struggle to connect with each other. The educational system is also criticized for its brutal methods.
Augusto Pérez (Miguel de Unamuno)
This work satirizes romantic love through Augusto’s instant infatuation with Eugenia. It also critiques realist novels through the character of Víctor Goti, who values dialogue over plot and psychological depth. The story takes a metafictional turn when Augusto consults Unamuno about his suicidal thoughts, only to be told he doesn’t exist.
Luces de Bohemia (Ramón del Valle-Inclán)
This play follows Max Estrella, a blind and impoverished modernist poet, through a final night of despair with his friend Don Latino, culminating in his death.
The Avant-Garde (1931-1936)
Context and Influences
Spanning from 1910 to World War II, the Avant-Garde encompassed various overlapping artistic and literary movements. It arose from a changing social and political landscape and a new understanding of art. New ideologies like anarchism, fascism, socialism, and communism gained prominence, alongside imperialist expansion and a crisis of bourgeois values. Artists and writers challenged established artistic norms, rejecting traditional forms and embracing illogical and subjective expression.
Key Movements
Major movements include Futurism, Dadaism, Cubism, and Surrealism.
Surrealism
Surrealism aimed to depict a reality beyond the senses and reason, accessible only through the subconscious. Influenced by Marxism and Freudian psychoanalysis, it sought to transform society and explore dreams, repressed desires, and the inner self. Automatic writing, characterized by spontaneous and uncensored expression, was a key technique. Surrealist works are rich in metaphors and illogical imagery, offering a rehumanizing perspective by focusing on the individual’s inner life.
“If Man Could Say” (Luis Cernuda)
This poem celebrates the freedom of expressing love and desire, valuing these emotions above glory and fortune. Love is seen as the source of meaning and justification for existence.
“Yesterday I Kissed on the Lips” (Pedro Salinas)
This poem imbues a kiss with a sense of eternity, expressing the hope that the feeling will transcend time.
“The Aurora” (Federico García Lorca)
This poem uses a series of surreal metaphors to depict the dawn in New York City, filled with people and the sounds of blues music.