Modernism and the Generation of ’98 in Spanish Literature

Posted on Sep 13, 2024 in Latin

Modernism and the Generation of ’98

1. Modernism

Modernism and the Generation of ’98 are two important literary movements in early 20th-century Spain. Modernism surged in Latin America around 1880 and arrived in Spain in 1898 with Rubén Darío’s second visit. This movement was influenced by two streams of French poetry:

  • Parnassianism: Emphasized the beauty and perfection of form, with authors focused on creating artistic works.
  • Symbolism: Sought to find the essence and deeper meanings of reality through symbols (exemplified by Antonio Machado).

Modernist authors adopted two main positions:

  • External Modernism: Characterized by an escape in space and time.
  • Intimate Modernism: Authors looked inward to find answers to their most intimate concerns.

The three basic characteristics of Modernism are:

  • Escape: Authors rejected the reality they lived in and sought refuge in other times and places.
  • Exoticism: Their works created exotic worlds filled with knights, princesses, swans, and other fantastical elements.
  • Cosmopolitanism: While not abandoning their roots, authors felt a strong connection to cities like Paris.

Authors and Works

In Spain, many authors opted for an intimate Modernist approach. Some notable figures include:

  • Manuel Machado (1874-1947): His work evolved from a modernist aesthetic (with themes like pain, Hispanic themes, exotic landscapes) as seen in Alma (1900) to more intimate, reflective poetry in Ars Moriendi (1921).
  • Antonio Machado (1875-1939): His work went through several stages, starting with Modernism in Solitudes (1903), later revised as Solitudes, Galleries and Other Poems (1909). His works explored themes like lost youth, death, dreams, memories, and the dialogue with nature. He later transitioned to the Generation of ’98 and philosophical reflections. Machado’s use of symbols is noteworthy, including:
    • The afternoon: monotony, maturity, aging, depression.
    • Water: flowing water symbolizes life, transience, or monotony; still water represents death.
    • Sea, autumn, shadow, moon: symbolize death.
    • The garden: the past, memory, and sadness.
    • Walk: life.
    • Orchard: illusion.
    • Well: memory, sadness, and pain.
  • Juan Ramón Jiménez (1881-1958): His work is divided into three phases: sensitive, intellectual, and true. His modernist tendencies appear in the sensitive stage, with works like Distant Gardens (1904), Elegies (1907), Magic and Suffering Poems (1909), and Spiritual Sonnets (1914).
  • Ramón María del Valle-Inclán (1866-1939): His work evolved from Modernism to critical literature. His modernist phase includes poetry like Aromas of Legend (1907) and prose like Sonatas. He is known for his Theory of Esperpento, a grotesque distortion of society to critique the reality of the time, which appears in his play Luces de Bohemia.

2. Generation of ’98

This movement consisted of young Spanish authors who, in the aftermath of the Spanish-American War of 1898, saw the need for renewal in all areas of Spanish society. Writers like Pío Baroja, Azorín, and Maeztu (the “group of three”) signed the “Manifesto of the Three” in 1901, denouncing Spain’s backwardness and proposing solutions. This group eventually dissolved, but its members continued to focus on spiritual renewal.

Features

  • Concern for Spain and appreciation for its traditions.
  • Subjectivity, projecting personal problems onto Spain.
  • Importance of the Castilian landscape, used to express emotion.
  • Philosophical reflections on the meaning of life, time, and the existence of God.
  • Renewal of language through precise and simple language, emphasizing content over form.

Authors and Works

  • Pío Baroja (1872-1956): His work reflects Spain’s backwardness at all levels. He primarily wrote novels, influenced by his pessimistic worldview. His characters are often misfits who fail, reflecting his own concerns. He valued spontaneity and observation, using them to capture reality in his settings and characters. His novels are characterized by brief descriptions, dialogue, and are often grouped in trilogies:
    • The Basque Country
    • The Fantastic Life
    • The Struggle for Life
    • The Race
    • The Cities
    • The Sea
  • Jesús Martínez Ruiz, Azorín (1873-1967): He started as a liberal and later became a conservative. He excelled as an essayist and novelist. His essays addressed the issue of Spain (The Spanish Soul, Castile) and the interpretation of literary classics (The Route of Don Quixote, On the Margin of the Classics, Modern Classics). His novels are known for detailed descriptions, short sentences, and a simple style. They are divided into four stages, reflecting his evolving concerns and experimentation with avant-garde techniques.
  • Miguel de Unamuno (1864-1936): His life and work were marked by two crises: the loss of his religious faith and his evolving views on Spain’s regeneration. He excelled as a novelist and essayist. He coined the term “nivola” to refer to his novels, which feature extensive dialogue and characters who serve as his alter egos, exploring themes like existence and death (Mist, Abel Sánchez, Aunt Tula, Saint Manuel Bueno, Martyr). His essays delve into Spain’s problems and philosophical reflections (On the Lands of Spain and Portugal, The Life of Don Quixote and Sancho, The Agony of Christianity, The Tragic Sense of Life). His poetry explores similar themes of time, death, and existence.
  • Antonio Machado (1875-1939): His inclusion in the Generation of ’98 is debated due to his ideological evolution. He started with Modernism and later aligned with the Generation of ’98 in Campos de Castilla (1912, expanded in 1917), which reflects his concern for Spain, the Castilian landscape, its people, and social and political issues. He also wrote New Songs (1924).
  • Ramón María del Valle-Inclán (1866-1936): His inclusion in the Generation of ’98 is also debated due to his ideological and literary evolution. He started by rejecting liberalism and later adopted a revolutionary ideology. He transitioned from Modernism to his critical Esperpento style. Some of his works, like the Carlist War trilogy (The Crusaders of the Cause, The Glow of the Fire, The Bigwigs of the Past), align with the Generation of ’98’s themes.