Modernism and the Generation of ’98 in Spanish Literature
Modernism
Definition
An artistic movement of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries characterized by a focus on aesthetics and a rejection of realism. Modernist writers often used their own Castilian language as a means of escape from the harsh realities of their time.
Duration
Approximately thirty years, from 1880 to 1914.
Features
- Opposition to Realism and Romanticism.
- Expression of inner feelings.
- Focus on idealized, exotic, and often nonexistent places.
- Rejection of reality, which is considered vulgar.
- Adherence to the principle of “art for art’s sake”—creating beauty for its own sake.
- Use of cultured and refined language.
- Emphasis on form over substance.
- Prioritization of language and meaning.
- Rich vocabulary.
Key Authors of Modernism
Rubén Darío (1867-1916)
Life
Born Félix Rubén García Sarmiento in Chocoyos, Nicaragua, Darío initially worked as a journalist and traveled extensively throughout America and Europe. He lived in Spain, where he served as a diplomat and significantly influenced contemporary Spanish poets. Darío introduced Modernism to Spain. His intense and chaotic life took a toll on his health, leading to his untimely death at a young age.
Work
Darío’s poetry is renowned for its beauty and musicality. His most important works include “Profane Prose” and “Songs of Life and Hope”.
Born in Nicaragua, Darío is considered the great master of Modernism and the one who introduced it to Spain. His diplomatic career led him to travel to France, where he met Symbolists and Parnassians, and Spain, where he befriended young writers whom he greatly influenced.
Stages of his Work (Most Important Works)
- Blue: Early Modernist works. This stage includes a series of stories written in highly ornate poetic prose and several poems, including those dedicated to the four seasons. This period showcases the influence of French literature, a taste for rare and fantastical themes, and a sensory attraction to beauty.
- Profane Prose: Represents the fullness of Darío’s Modernist style. This book comprises poems with predominantly exotic motifs (Versailles, Greece, the East, etc.), a penchant for color and musicality, and the use of French meters (especially the Alexandrine).
- Songs of Life and Hope: Characterized by a simpler style, this work addresses the theme of “Hispanidad” (the unity of Spanish-speaking countries against the rising power of the United States) and Darío’s inner feelings. The poet appears torn and anguished, grappling with his sensuality and the fear of an unknown beyond.
Manuel Machado
In his verses, Manuel Machado blended the Andalusian spirit of his homeland (Seville) with the cosmopolitan air of Paris, where he lived for several years.
His poems reveal a mix of melancholic intimacy characteristic of Modernism and Decadence (“Alma,” “Caprichos”), Andalusian themes (“Cante Hondo”), and intriguing portraits and evocations of the past.
Juan Ramón Jiménez
Born in Moguer (Huelva), Jiménez moved to Madrid in his youth but was later exiled to Puerto Rico, where he died. He received the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1956. Jiménez was hypersensitive, obsessed with beauty and perfection, and never forgot his Andalusian roots.
The central theme of his work revolves around introspection and the exaltation of nature.
Stages of Work
- Early Period: Characterized by simple prose inspired by Bécquer, subdued musicality, simple meters, and a pervasive melancholy and refined emotion typical of Modernism (“Arias Tristes”).
- Modernist Period: Marked by colorful, richly ornamental, and sentimental poetry with an intimate tone, employing techniques characteristic of Modernism (“Sinfonías de la Soledad”).
- Naked Poetry: Features condensed, austere poetry devoid of sensuality and traditional Modernist motifs, focusing instead on ideas expressed in a sober and bare style (“Diario de un poeta reciéncasado”). Jiménez disregarded anything that he considered non-essential to poetic essence (narrative, color, music, traditional metrics) to expose his yearning for beauty, aesthetics, spiritual wholeness, and a pantheistic vision of nature. All his later work represents a continuous refinement of this new style (“Eternidades,” “Belleza”).
Juan Ramón Jiménez played a pivotal role in introducing Modernism to Spanish poetry. He inspired the younger Generation of ’27, who considered him their undisputed master.
Generation of ’98
Causes of the Emergence of the Generation of ’98
The Generation of ’98 refers to a group of writers born around the same time who were deeply affected by the loss of Spain’s colonies (Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines) in 1898. This event, coupled with a sense of boredom and disillusionment prevalent at the turn of the century, shaped their worldview and literary output.
Key Authors of the Generation of ’98
Antonio Machado
Born in Seville, Antonio Machado’s poetry is emotionally connected to Castile, where he spent most of his life.
Stages in his Work
- “Soledades” (Solitudes): Represents Machado’s Modernist phase. This work is characterized by sensory language, decadent sentimentality, themes of nostalgia, sadness, and existential concerns.
- “Campos de Castilla” (Fields of Castile): Reflects a more sober style. The central theme is Spain, with a focus on Machado’s concerns and feelings, creating an “inner landscape.” This work also reflects on the memory of his deceased wife.
- Later Works: Include “Proverbios y Cantares” (Proverbs and Songs), which showcases a shift towards political engagement (influenced by his exile).
Ramón del Valle-Inclán
An original and eccentric figure born in Galicia, Valle-Inclán’s literary production is deeply rooted in his homeland. He cultivated poetry, fiction, and drama, infusing them with a renewed spirit.
Stages
- Modernist Period: Characterized by a focus on the gallant and sentimental, as seen in his “Sonatas” novels.
- Transitional Period: Marked by a search for a personal style, evident in his play “Divinas Palabras” (Divine Words).
- Esperpentos: Plays that distort reality to highlight the absurdity of Spanish life. This deformation affects all elements: plot, setting, language, and characters (who often appear as caricatures, depersonalized or animalized). A prime example is his play “Luces de Bohemia” (Bohemian Lights).
Features of the Generation of ’98
The defining characteristics of the Generation of ’98 were:
- Identity: Exaltation of national and patriotic values, revaluing Spain and its traditions.
- Integration: Advocacy for Spain’s integration into Europe.
- Pessimism: A pessimistic and critical outlook on Spain’s situation.
- Renewal: A desire to renew the classic molds of literary genres.
- Simplicity: Use of simple and expressive language.
- Brevity: Preference for simple, concise, and brief sentences.