Modernism and the Generation of ’98 in Spanish Literature
MODERNISM
Definition
An artistic movement of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries characterized by a focus on aesthetics and a rejection of realism. Modernist writers, such as the Nicaraguan poet Rubén Darío, often used elaborate language and explored exotic or fantastical themes as a means of escaping the perceived vulgarity of everyday life.
Duration
Approximately thirty years, from 1880 to 1914.
Features
- Opposition to Realism and Romanticism.
- Expression of inner feelings.
- Focus on idealized, exotic, and often nonexistent settings.
- Rejection of reality, which is considered vulgar.
- Adherence to the principle of “art for art’s sake”—creating beauty with no other intention.
- Use of cultured and refined language.
- Emphasis on form over substance.
- Prioritization of language and meaning.
- Rich vocabulary.
AUTHORS
Rubén Darío (1867-1916)
Life
Born Félix Rubén García Sarmiento in Chocoyos, Nicaragua, Darío initially worked as a journalist and traveled extensively throughout the Americas and Europe. He lived in Spain, where he served as a diplomat and significantly influenced contemporary Spanish poets. Darío introduced Modernism to Spain. His intense and chaotic lifestyle took a toll on his health, leading to his premature death at a young age.
Work
Darío’s poetry is renowned for its beauty and musicality. “Profane Prose” and “Songs of Life and Hope” are considered his most important works.
Considered the master of Modernism and its key figure in Spain, Darío’s diplomatic career led him to France, where he encountered Symbolists and Parnassians, and Spain, where he formed friendships with young writers whom he greatly influenced.
Stages of his work (most important works)
- Blue: Early Modernist works. This stage comprises a collection of stories written in highly ornate poetic prose and several poems, including those dedicated to the four seasons. This period showcases French influence, a penchant for unusual and fantastical themes, and a sensory attraction to beauty.
- Profane Prose: Represents the culmination of Darío’s Modernist style. This book consists of poems with predominantly exotic motifs (Versailles, Greece, the East, etc.), a taste for color and musicality, and meters of French origin (especially the Alexandrine).
- Songs of Life and Hope: Features a simpler style and explores themes of Hispanidad (advocating for Spanish-speaking countries against rising American power) and Darío’s inner feelings. The poet appears torn, expressing anguish, including his inclination towards sensuality and the fear of an unknown beyond.
Manuel Machado
Manuel Machado’s verses blended the Andalusian spirit of his homeland (Seville) with the cosmopolitan air of Paris, where he resided for several years. His poems reveal a melancholic intimacy characteristic of Modernism and Decadence (“Alma,” “Caprichos”), Andalusian themes (“Cante Hondo”), and captivating portraits and evocations of the past.
Juan Ramón Jiménez
Born in Moguer (Huelva), Jiménez later moved to Madrid but was exiled to Puerto Rico, where he died. He received the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1956. A hypersensitive individual obsessed with beauty and perfection, Jiménez never forgot his Andalusian roots. His work revolves around themes of introspection and the exaltation of nature.
Stages of work
- Simple prose: Inspired by Bécquer, this stage is characterized by subdued musicality, simple meters, and a pervasive melancholy and refined emotion typical of Modernism (“Arias Tristes”).
- Modernist poetry: Colorful, richly ornamental, and sentimental, with an intimate tone reminiscent of major Modernist works (“Solitude Sonora”).
- Naked poetry: Condensed and stripped of sensuality and typical Modernist motifs, this stage focuses on ideas expressed in a sober and bare style (“Diary of a Newly Married Poet”). Jiménez disregarded anything he deemed non-essential to poetic essence (narrative, color, music, traditional metrics) to expose his yearning for beauty, aesthetics, spiritual wholeness, and a pantheistic vision of nature. All his later work represents a continuous refinement of this new style (“Eternal,” “Beauty”).
Juan Ramón Jiménez played a crucial role in introducing Modernism to Spanish poetry. He inspired the younger Generation of ’27, who considered him their undisputed master.
GENERATION OF ’98
Causes of the Emerging Generation of ’98
The Generation of ’98 refers to a group of writers born around the same time who were profoundly affected by the socio-political climate of Spain in the late 19th century, particularly the loss of its last colonies (Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines) in the Spanish-American War of 1898. This event, coupled with a sense of disillusionment and a yearning for national regeneration, shaped their literary output.
In addition to the loss of the colonies, the emergence of the Generation of ’98 was also driven by a sense of boredom and disappointment that these writers felt at the turn of the century.
Antonio Machado
Although born in Seville, Antonio Machado’s poetry is emotionally connected to Castile, where he spent most of his life.
Stages in his work
- “Solitudes”: Machado’s Modernist stage, characterized by sensory language, decadent sentimentality, themes of nostalgia, sadness, and existential concerns.
- “Campos de Castilla”: A more sober style. This stage focuses on Spain, Machado’s concerns about its future, and his feelings, creating an “inner landscape.” It also reflects on the memory of his deceased wife.
- Later works: Include “Proverbs and Songs,” showcasing a growing political commitment that eventually led to his exile.
Ramón del Valle-Inclán
An original and eccentric figure born in Galicia, Valle-Inclán’s literary production is deeply rooted in his homeland. He cultivated poetry, fiction, and drama, all infused with a renewed spirit.
Stages
- Modernist: Characterized by romantic and gallant themes, as seen in his “Sonatas” novels.
- Transitional: Marked by a search for a personal style, evident in plays like “Divine Words.”
- Esperpentos: Plays that distort reality to highlight the absurdity of Spanish life. This deformation affects all elements: plot, setting, language, and characters, who often appear as grotesque caricatures, depersonalized or even animalized. “Bohemian Lights” is a prime example of this style.
Features
The defining characteristics of the Generation of ’98 were:
- Identity: Exaltation of national and patriotic values, revaluing Spain and its traditions.
- Integration: A call for Spain’s integration into Europe.
- Pessimism: A pessimistic and critical outlook on the state of Spain.
- Renewal: A desire to renew the classic molds of literary genres.
- Simplicity: Use of simple and expressive language.
- Brevity: Preference for simple, concise, and brief sentences.