Modernism and the Generation of ’98 in Spanish Literature
Modernism
Definition
An artistic movement of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Authors used the Castilian language as a means of escape from the harsh realities of their time, prioritizing aesthetics.
Duration
Approximately thirty years, from 1880 to 1914.
Key Features
- Opposed to Realism and reminiscent of Romanticism.
- Expresses inner feelings.
- Focuses on idealized, exotic, and often nonexistent places.
- Shuns reality, considering it vulgar.
- Embraces “art for art’s sake”—creating beauty without ulterior motives.
- Uses cultured and refined language.
- Prioritizes form over substance.
- Emphasizes language over meaning.
- Displays a rich vocabulary.
Key Authors of Modernism
Rubén Darío (1867-1916)
Life
Born Félix Rubén García Sarmiento, Darío initially worked as a journalist and traveled extensively throughout the Americas and Europe. He lived in Spain as a diplomat and significantly influenced Spanish poets of his time, introducing Modernism. His intense and chaotic life led to health problems and an early death.
Work
Darío’s poetry is full of beauty and musicality. Profane Prose and Songs of Life and Hope are his most important works.
Born in Nicaragua, Darío is considered the master of Modernism and introduced the movement to Spain. His diplomatic work led him to travel to France (where he met Symbolists and Parnassians) and Spain (where he befriended and influenced young writers).
Stages of his Work
- Azul: Early Modernist work. It includes stories in ornate poetic prose and poems dedicated to the four seasons. Shows French influence, a taste for rare and fantastical themes, and a sensory attraction to beauty.
- Profane Prose: The culmination of his Modernist style. Poems with exotic motifs (Versailles, Greece, the East), emphasizing color, musicality, and French meters (especially Alexandrine).
- Songs of Life and Hope: Simpler style. Addresses Hispanidad (the unity of Spanish-speaking countries against rising American power) and Darío’s inner feelings—his anguish, sensuality, and fear of the unknown.
Manuel Machado
Machado’s verses blend the Andalusian spirit of his homeland (Seville) with the cosmopolitan air of Paris, where he lived for several years. His poems reflect the melancholic intimacy of Modernism (Alma, Caprichos), Andalusian themes (Cante Hondo), and portraits and evocations of the past.
Juan Ramón Jiménez (1881-1958)
Born in Moguer (Huelva), Jiménez moved to Madrid in his youth and later lived in exile in Puerto Rico, where he died. He received the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1956. Hypersensitive and obsessed with beauty and perfection, he never forgot his Andalusian roots. His work revolves around introspection and the exaltation of nature.
Stages of his Work
- Simple Prose: Inspired by Bécquer, with subdued musicality and simple meters, imbued with the melancholy and refined emotion of Modernism (Arias Tristes).
- Modernist Poetry: Colorful, richly ornamental, and sentimental, with an intimate tone (Sonetos Espirituales).
- Naked Poetry: Condensed, devoid of sensuality and Modernist motifs, focusing on ideas expressed in a sober and bare style (Diario de un poeta reciéncasado). Ignores non-essential elements (narrative, color, music, traditional metrics) to expose his yearning for beauty, aesthetics, spiritual wholeness, and a pantheistic vision of nature. His later work refines this style (Eternidades, Belleza).
Jiménez introduced modernism into Spanish poetry and inspired the Generation of ’27, of which he was an undisputed master.
The Generation of ’98
Causes
The Generation of ’98 comprises writers born around the same time, moved by the events of their era, facing similar problems, and reacting similarly to them. Besides the loss of Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines, the generation’s emergence was influenced by the sense of boredom and disappointment felt by writers at the turn of the century.
Antonio Machado (1875-1939)
Born in Seville, Machado’s poetry is emotionally connected to Castile, where he spent most of his life.
Stages of his Work
- Soledades: Modernist stage. Sensory language, decadent sentimentality, themes of nostalgia, sadness, and existential concerns.
- Campos de Castilla: Sober style. Focuses on Spain, its concerns, and Machado’s feelings, creating an “inner landscape.” Reflects on the memory of his deceased wife.
- Proverbs and Songs
- Political Commitment (led to his exile)
Ramón del Valle-Inclán (1866-1936)
An original and eccentric figure born in Galicia, where much of his work is set. He cultivated poetry, fiction, and drama with a renewed spirit.
Stages of his Work
- Modernist: Romantic and gallant works: Sonatas (novels).
- Transitional: Search for a personal style: Divine Words (theater).
- Esperpentos: Plays distorting reality to highlight the absurdity of Spanish life. Deformation affects all elements: plot, setting, language, and characters (caricatures, depersonalized or animalized figures). Example: Bohemian Lights.
Key Features of the Generation of ’98
- Identity: Exalting national and patriotic values, revaluing Spain and its traditions.
- Integration: Proposing Spain’s integration into Europe.
- Pessimism: A pessimistic and critical outlook.
- Renewal: Renewing classic literary genres.
- Simplicity: Simple and expressive language.
- Brevity: Prevalence of simple, concise, and brief sentences.