Modernism and the Generation of ’98 in Spanish Literature
Modernism and the Generation of ’98
End-of-Century Literature: Modernism and the Generation of ’98
Historical, Social, and Literary Context
In the late nineteenth century, Europe experienced the crisis of the century, also called the crisis of bourgeois consciousness. This was a time of political and social instability marked by important scientific discoveries, major technological advances, and new artistic and ideological trends. This period culminated in the outbreak of World War I (1914-1918), which coincided with the Russian Revolution (1917). In Spain, this crisis was associated with political and social problems, culminating in the disaster of ’98 (the loss of the last Spanish colonies). This crisis manifested in a group of writers and intellectuals who shared concerns about reforming the country’s situation and desired aesthetic transformation.
Modernism is a cultural movement with diverse manifestations in European countries, including art, architecture, and literature. Literary Modernism embraced Romantic nonconformity and new French and Latin American aesthetic trends, leading to an intense renewal of literary language, particularly in poetry and the novel.
The Generation of ’98 comprises writers concerned with existential issues and aware of Spain’s problems, including the political, social, and cultural crisis during the transition between the 19th and 20th centuries. They primarily cultivated the novel and the essay genres.
Modernism
Modernism was promoted by the Nicaraguan poet Rubén Darío, drawing from Hispanic trends and contemporary French poetry, including:
- Parnassianism: A French aesthetic movement that advocated for formal beauty and perfection (“art for art’s sake”) and rejected Romantic sentimentality.
- Symbolism: Also of French origin, Symbolism sought to suggest the poet’s emotions through symbols of reality, such as landscapes (the landscape as a state of mind).
This influence led to aestheticism and the pursuit of beauty as forms of dissent or rejection of reality. It resulted in a profound renewal of poetic language, metrical forms, and themes:
- Plasticity and Musicality: Abundant use of color and sensory imagery, along with a suggestive glossary and original rhetorical resources.
- New Metrical Forms: Recovery or creation of new verses (Alexandrine, dodecasyllabic, etc.) with a focus on formal perfection.
- New Themes: Ranging from “escapist” themes influenced by Parnassianism (exotic environments, oriental gardens, swans) to more intimate and symbolist themes with a Romantic touch.
The main genre was poetry, followed by poetic prose and narrative. In Spain, Modernism’s influence continued in the prose of writers like Ramón María del Valle-Inclán and the poetry of Antonio Machado and Juan Ramón Jiménez.
Modernist Poetry: Rubén Darío
Rubén Darío (1867-1916) is the most representative poet of Modernism. During his travels through Europe, he connected with new Parnassian and Symbolist trends in Paris and visited Spain, where he greatly influenced young Modernist poets. His work can be divided into stages:
- In Azul (1888) and Prosas Profanas (1896), he showcased his rich imagination and virtuosity in language, adhering to the new Modernist aesthetic code.
- In Cantos de Vida y Esperanza (1905), a shift towards a deeper tone, personal reflection, and greater engagement with political and social issues is observed.
Generation of ’98
This term encompasses a group of intellectuals who, in their youth, shared radical reformist ideals regarding Spanish politics, society, and culture. They also sought a new aesthetic based on subjectivity, contrasting with the Realist style. This group includes Miguel de Unamuno, Pío Baroja, José Martínez Ruiz ‘Azorín’ (who were radical conservatives), Antonio Machado, and Ramón María del Valle-Inclán (who transitioned from conservative to radical).
Defining Characteristics of the Generation of ’98:
- Concern for Spain’s Problems: They critically reflected on the country’s issues from a reformist perspective and explored the theme of Spain through a subjective and psychological approach, rather than a historical one. This led to an idealized depiction of the Castilian landscape.
- Existential Themes: They grappled with profound issues affecting human beings from an individual perspective, influenced by contemporary European philosophical currents.
- Sobriety: They contributed to the aesthetics of the late 19th century by deliberately seeking an anti-rhetorical language, yet highly elaborate in its simplicity and imbued with a subjective vision.