Modernism and the Generation of ’98 in Spanish Literature
1. Historical Context: Modernism and the Generation of ’98
Modernist literature emerged within a complex historical context. Socially, the late 19th century witnessed the prelude to revolts across Europe, culminating in the Russian Revolution of 1917. Politically, tensions arising from the colonization of Africa and Asia led to World War I (1914-1918). In Spain, 1898 marked the loss of the last overseas colonies (Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines) after defeat by the U.S., known as the Disaster of ’98.
Marxist doctrine, advocating for the eradication of social inequalities, gained traction. Theories like psychoanalysis, aiming to interpret subconscious desires, also developed.
Spanish-language literature of the 19th century incorporated these new ideas in diverse ways. Modernist authors favored the aestheticism of Rubén Darío. Simultaneously, a group of young authors, known as the Generation of ’98, began addressing concerns inspired by Spain’s situation.
Late 19th century Spain experienced social tensions due to the proletariat’s poor living conditions. Scientific and technological backwardness, coupled with social instability, worried intellectuals who sought measures to modernize and rebuild the country.
Politically, the 20th century began with the reign of Alfonso XIII (1902). In 1923, the king supported the coup d’état of Primo de Rivera, imposing a dictatorship that lasted until 1930.
2. Modernism: Concept and Characteristics
In the late 19th century, the art movement known as Modernism triumphed. Originating in Latin America with figures like José Martí (Cuban poet) and Rubén Darío (Nicaraguan), Modernism gained momentum. The 1888 publication of Azul… by Rubén Darío is considered its starting point.
Key characteristics of Modernism include:
- Aestheticism: Prioritizing beauty above all else. In poetry, this involved emphasizing rhythm and musicality, leading to the renovation of metrical forms.
- Escapism: Authors sought refuge from reality, often evoking the past (Middle Ages, Greco-Roman mythology), luxurious settings (palaces, castles), and foreign civilizations (China, Japan, India). Urban and cosmopolitan themes were also favored.
- Themes: Feelings of boredom, apathy, and melancholy were frequently expressed.
- Symbolism: Elements like the swan became symbols of Modernist aesthetics.
3. The Generation of ’98
The Generation of ’98 refers to a group of authors born in the late 19th century who addressed two fundamental themes: Spain’s decline and existential angst. Miguel de Unamuno, Pío Baroja, José Martínez Ruiz ‘Azorín’, Ramiro de Maeztu, and Antonio Machado are generally considered members.
Reflecting on the national situation, these authors often employed landscape descriptions (particularly of Castile) as symbolic and lyrical elements.
They pursued a purification of literary language, seeking a natural and accessible tone.
4. Poetry
Rubén Darío and Antonio Machado are the two principal figures in poetry from the late 19th and early 20th centuries.
4.1 Rubén Darío
The Nicaraguan poet Rubén Darío (1867-1916) is the foremost representative of Modernism. His key works include Azul…, Prosas Profanas, and Cantos de Vida y Esperanza.
Azul… and Prosas Profanas showcase the aesthetic beauty of Modernism, characterized by exotic imagery and brilliant musicality, as seen in the poem “Winter”.
Cantos de Vida y Esperanza, however, represents a shift towards intimate and reflective poetry, where Darío explores more transcendent themes, as exemplified in the poem “Lo Fatal”.
5. Prose
5.1 Modernist Prose
Characterized by poetic and musical language, rich in sensory imagery and evocative descriptions. Ramón del Valle-Inclán’s Sonatas exemplify Modernist prose.
5.2 The Generation of ’98
These authors cultivated the essay and the novel. Their essays addressed Spain’s decline and their existential concerns. Miguel de Unamuno stands out as a notable essayist.
In the realm of the novel, Miguel de Unamuno, Pío Baroja, and José Martínez Ruiz ‘Azorín’ are prominent figures.
5.3 José Martínez Ruiz ‘Azorín’
Azorín (1873-1967) published articles, book reviews, essays, and novels, including titles like La Voluntad and Doña Inés.
Azorín’s texts feature minimal plots, emphasizing the description of environments and sensations. His novels present a succession of short, descriptive scenes.
6. Theater
Jacinto Benavente, a proponent of a new, more realistic comedy with critical dialogues, achieved great success, as seen in Los Intereses Creados and La Malquerida. However, the true innovator of the Spanish stage was Ramón del Valle-Inclán, creator of the esperpento technique.