Modernism and the Generation of ’98: Literary Transformations in Spain
Modernism (Late 19th Century): A loss of confidence in progress and science arose, as they failed to solve problems or offer absolute truths. This general, artistic, and cultural crisis reflected an attitude of artists reacting against bourgeois utilitarianism, particularly in Latin America with its anti-imperialist sentiment.
Influences:
- Parnassianism: Pursued the expression of beauty and formal perfection.
- Symbolism: Aimed to suggest hidden truths through symbols. It emphasized the beauty of objects and places, the presentation of intense feelings and emotions, and defended aristocratic values against vulgarity. This led to an escape from reality through explorations of the past and distant lands.
Modernism renewed literary language with learned vocabulary and emphasized musicality through rhythmic devices like anaphora and parallelism, using both classical and free verse forms.
Rubén Darío: The initiator of literary modernism, Darío pursued formal novelty by breaking with previous aesthetics. His work reflects Parnassian and Symbolist influences, along with a belief in the poet’s superior ability to interpret the world.
- Prosas Profanas and Other Poems: Darío’s first book, showcasing Modernist themes and developments in both verse and prose. Short stories and poems present a world of fairies and princesses, depicted with vivid adjectives and striking imagery.
- Azul…: Darío’s second book, marked by verbal innovation. Poems explore exotic and aristocratic themes, as well as social issues and Spanish identity, with a focus on eroticism.
- Songs of Life and Hope: A shift in Darío’s literary approach, with more personal, intimate, and reflective themes. While external beauty is less emphasized, formal innovations remain. Philosophical concerns about time and the loss of youth emerge, alongside a call for unity among American peoples against imperialism.
Generation of ’98: These writers and intellectuals reflected on Spain’s reality and philosophical concerns in their writings. Some began with Modernism but evolved, maintaining a focus on personal literature, existential problems, and Spain.
Key Themes:
- Spain: The deep political and social crisis following the loss of the last Spanish colonies and national prestige prompted reflections on the causes of decline. Writers idealized Spanish landscapes, particularly Castile, and celebrated its history, literature, and art.
- Existence: The crisis of the late 19th and early 20th centuries led to reflections on the destiny of man and the meaning of life, exploring themes of death, time, and the pain of living. Writers sought precise expression with unadorned simplicity and rigor, renewing literary language.
Antonio Machado: Known for his poetry, Machado also wrote didactic prose and drama. His early poems were Modernist, but he later developed a more subjective and intimate style.
- Solitudes, Galleries, and Other Poems: Explores existential angst through descriptions of decadent landscapes, often using poetic dialogue to project the speaker’s mood and symbolize inner turmoil.
- Campos de Castilla: Addresses political and social issues related to the Castilian landscape, its people, and history. Machado critiques those who envy and don’t work while praising those whose efforts advance the country. The collection also includes poems about the death of his wife, Leonor, and brief philosophical reflections.
Miguel de Unamuno: A complex and contradictory figure, Unamuno was a star of early 20th-century intellectual life. His essays, novels, poems, and plays reflect his philosophical ideas. He criticized Spain’s situation and advocated for European models to overcome social, scientific, and political backwardness. His main preoccupations were the meaning of life and religious faith.
- Essays: Unamuno’s essays present his ideas about Spain and his philosophical reflections, including an examination of the lives of Don Quixote and Sancho Panza.
- Novels (Nivolas): Unamuno’s novels embody his obsessions, prioritizing dialogue and monologue over action. He called these novels “nivolas.”