Modernist and Generation of ’98 Literature in Spain
The Renewal of Modernist Language
Modernist language entails a renewal of lexical exclusivity. Brilliant and showy sensory nouns refer to a noble, ideal world, and a dazzling ornamental style evokes ideal language, sensations, and states of mind. The verses used metric alejandrinos and libre.
Themes
- Ideal of beauty and harmony
- Search for love
- Dreams
- Escape from the everyday world
- The origin of American peoples
- Cosmopolitanism
- Loneliness
Rubén Darío
Rubén Darío was born in Nicaragua. At 14 years old, he published his first poems (themes: wandering life and the world of Bohemia). He traveled extensively and died in his native country. He contributed to lyric poetry in the Spanish language in both Spain and Hispanic America. His temperament was emotional and idealistic; he felt beauty and passion alongside existential angst.
Darío’s Stages
- Imitating Spanish Romantics and renewing the Spanish-language lyric
- Disruptive “blue” book with the use of Alexandrine verses and dodecasílabos sonnets. Subjects include females, eroticism, nature, and dreams.
- Published secular prose. This is a book about musical maturity, rhythmic verses with stanzas, and a full range of values of cosmopolitanism. It proclaims art as the most sublime form of expressing the theme of love.
- Works: Songs of Life and Hope, Los Cisnes and other poems. This book is considered his best poetic perspective. The poetry is sincere and thoughtful; human waves are existential and political issues.
Manuel Machado
Manuel Machado lived with his younger brother Antonio. They frequented literary circles. Installed in Paris, he befriended great Spanish writers. In 1938, he returned to Spain. In his work, he incorporates Andalusian folkloric forms and motifs (works include Soul, Evil Poem, Sing Ondo, Ars Moriendi).
Ramón del Valle-Inclán
Valle-Inclán explored modernist aesthetics in works such as Aromas of Legend, The Traveler, and Sonatas, written in poetic prose. Another notable work is The Pipe of Kif.
Generation of ’98
The Generation of ’98 was a group of writers with a desire to renew Spanish literature and respond to the problems of Spain, such as the loss of colonial rule. Some key figures include Valle-Inclán, Unamuno, Maeztu, Azorín, Baroja, and A. Machado.
Common Traits of the Generation of ’98
- Born in the same period (around 1870)
- Shared formative readings and personal relationships (homage to Larra)
- Experienced the loss of Spanish colonies
- Presence of intellectual guides
- Use of modern language, rejecting the previous generation
Themes of the Generation of ’98
- Critical and anti-bourgeois ideology
- Desire to change society
- Problems of Spain
Miguel de Unamuno’s Lyric Poetry
The most important poet of the Generation of ’98, Unamuno wrote extensively. His poetry is conceptual and existential, dealing with metaphysics and mysticism. His work was formed by reading classic and romantic poets, including Spanish authors. He uses discursive poetic language. His volume of meditative verse is emotionally torn open and uses sonnets and other forms.
Unamuno’s Themes
- Family
- Country
- Religion (his fear of death, longing for immortality, faith in agony and angst)
Unamuno’s Works
- “Poems”
- “String of Lyrical Sonnets”
- “Christ of Velázquez”
- “Teresa”
- “From Fuerteventura to Paris”
- “Ballad of Exile”
- “Cancionero: Poetic Diary”
Unamuno’s Life
- Born in Bilbao
- Lived in Madrid
- Traveled and studied in Europe
- Professor and Rector at the University of Salamanca
- Joined the PSOE (Spanish Socialist Workers’ Party)
- Exiled to Fuerteventura
- Escaped to France
- Died in Salamanca
Antonio Machado
Antonio Machado was born in Seville. He studied at the Free Institution of Education. He would return to Paris with his brother Manuel. He married Leonor, who later died. He moved to Baeza and then to Segovia. In 1936, he went to France, where he died.
Machado’s Works
- “Solitudes”
- “Galleries and Other Poems”
- “Campos de Castilla”
- “New Songs”
- “The Apocryphal Songbook”
Machado’s Style
Machado’s early work, such as “Solitudes,” reflects modernist aesthetics with a melancholic tone and the use of symbolism. “Campos de Castilla” shows a shift towards realism, focusing on the Castilian landscape and people. His later works, like “New Songs,” are characterized by a simpler, more austere language.
Juan Ramón Jiménez
Juan Ramón Jiménez was born in Moguer and studied at the Jesuit school in Cádiz. He traveled to Madrid and later married Zenobia Camprubí. They lived in Argentina, Cuba, and the United States. He received the Nobel Prize in Literature. Jiménez believed that poetry was a minor genre, and his work is characterized by its conceptual density and hermeticism.
Jiménez’s Stages
- Sensitive Period: Influenced by Spanish Romantic poets and modernists. Works include “Clouds,” “Water Lilies,” “Souls of Violet,” and “Platero y yo.” This period is marked by themes of longing, beauty, death, and sadness. “Platero y yo” is written in poetic prose and shows a turn towards realism and lyrical descriptions.
- Intellectual Period: Characterized by a focus on precision, clarity, and the search for beauty and truth. Jiménez mixes prose and verse in works like “Eternity” and “Stone and Sky.” He also published prose works like “Spanish from 3 Worlds.”
- Suficiente (Sufficient) Period: Marked by his exile in America. Jiménez uses contemplative free verse in works like “On the Other Side” and “Lyric of an Atlantis.”
Miguel de Unamuno’s Novels
Unamuno was a multifaceted figure: a politician, philosopher, essayist, poet, and novelist. His works explore themes of existential angst, the existence of God, and the human condition. He saw life as a struggle filled with conflict and doubt.
Unamuno’s Style
Unamuno’s writing is characterized by its passionate and lively language. He uses paradoxical expressions and vivid imagery. He introduced the term “nivola” to describe his novels, which often blur the lines between fiction and reality.
Unamuno’s Works
- “Peace in War”
- “Love and Pedagogy”
- “Mist”
- “San Manuel Bueno, Martyr” (explores the conflict between truth and lies, faith and doubt, and the meaning of life)
Ramón del Valle-Inclán
Valle-Inclán’s work evolved from Modernism towards social commentary. He was politically engaged and employed two distinct narrative styles: Art Nouveau and Expressionism. He used caricature to highlight the grotesque aspects of reality.
Valle-Inclán’s Works
- “Femina”
- “Jandine Umbrian”
- “Sonatas” (considered some of the finest examples of Modernist prose)
- “The Crusades of the Cause”
- “The Glow of the Fire”
- “Antaño”
- “Tyrant Flags”
- “Bohemian Lights”
Pío Baroja
Pío Baroja’s works are marked by existential pessimism and skepticism. His characters are often clueless and defeated. He cultivated an open genre, improvising and relying on intuition. His style is spontaneous and rushed.
José Martínez Ruiz (Azorín)
Azorín was a renowned essayist and a thoughtful writer. His poetry is characterized by its openness and meditative quality. His works often explore the passage of time, the evocation of the past, and the subjective recreation of landscapes.
Azorín’s Works
- “The Route of Don Quixote”
- “Castilla”
- “The Will”
- “Antonio Azorín”
- “Confessions of a Small Philosopher”
Noucentisme
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