Modernization: China, Ottoman Empire, and Ethiopia
Historical Context | China | Ottoman Empire | Ethiopia |
Modernization Process | China changed from an empire with an imperial court into a modern nation-state with a communist system. Modernization was, to a great extent, the consequence of the revolutionary policy of Mao Zedong. An intensive and relatively quick process of industrialization caused famine. | The Ottoman Empire came to an end in 1919 after the First World War. Under the leadership of Atatürk, the Turkish Republic became a modern, secularized nation-state. He established an authoritarian regime. | An important impulse to modernization was given by Haile Selassie. However, this did not mean the end of court culture as in China and the Ottoman Empire. Rather, an absolutist court on the model of early modern European courts was introduced by Haile Selassie from 1930. |
Institutional Protocol | During the imperial period, protocol had the character of court ceremonial. In China, the Emperor lived secluded in the Forbidden City. There was a big distance between the Emperor and the rest of his subjects. This distance was regulated through the spatial organization of the Forbidden City. Institutional protocol changed radically when China became a communist country. Modern state administration was introduced. Around Mao was an important personality cult. | During the Ottoman Empire, the sultan ruled from his court. Protocol had the character of court ceremonial. The sultan lived secluded in the Topkapi Palace. There was a big distance between the sultan and the rest of his subjects. This distance was regulated through the spatial organization in the Topkapi Palace. Institutional Protocol changed radically with the establishment of the secularized Turkish Republic and the introduction of a modern administrative system. Around Atatürk was an important personality cult. | Haile Selassie introduced a courtly protocol in his palace. At the same time, he introduced a constitution based on a Western model. However, although there was a bicameral parliament, Haile Selassie enjoyed almost absolute power. The laws were promulgated by him, and he also chose the president and vice president. So, on the contrary to Western European constitutional monarchies where the king and queen had a symbolic function, Haile Selassie kept power. An important personality cult was developed around him. |
Social/Religious Protocol | Life at court was also regulated through courtly manners. The Chinese aristocracy distinguished itself as an elite through their behavior. After the Cultural Revolution, the government imposed a new way of life. Traditional customs were considered to be corrupt and anti-revolutionary. | Life at court was regulated through courtly manners. Being a member of the harem or being educated in the male household implied observing courtly manners. Under Atatürk, a Western way of life was introduced in the Turkish Republic, especially in the big cities, less in the countryside. | Social protocol was characterized by a Western way of life and Western manners. Just as in Turkey, there was a lot of difference between the capital and the rural zones, where a traditional way of life remained. |