Monarchies and Empires: Evolution and Decline
The Old Regime: Absolute and Authoritarian Monarchies
During the Middle Ages, monarchies were weak and controlled by a powerful nobility. From the late 15th century, royal authority strengthened due to:
- Autonomy of the King against the Pope.
- Bureaucratization of the monarchy.
- Reduced importance of medieval parliamentary bodies.
- Development of urban capitalism generating income for monarchs (royal tax).
- Creation of royal armies imposing the king’s authority over nobles.
- Stabilization of borders.
- The king’s divine right, making the monarchy unquestionable.
Monarchs gained power but still needed medieval institutions like courts for money and to respect privileges. This is authoritarian monarchy. Over time, it evolved into absolute monarchy.
The king, seen as a reflection of divine power, held absolute power. He appointed judges, administered justice, and directed both domestic and foreign policy. He was not subject to control and did not share sovereignty, as his economic power made parliaments unnecessary. He often disregarded regional rights and privileges. The king was the state, and his subjects’ will was subject to his.
Absolute kings were advised by institutions like the State Council. Local administration was handled by governors and mayors appointed by the king, who implemented laws, maintained order, and directed public works. A legion of officials and bureaucrats carried out royal orders, collected taxes, and ran the state machinery.
Parliaments of the Old Regime
These were of medieval origin, reflecting the social model of the Estates. The three estates (nobility, clergy, and commoners) were represented. Despite the nobility and clergy being only 5% of the population, each estate had one vote, regardless of the number of representatives or the percentage of the population they represented.
Parliaments had limited authority, mainly on tax matters in exceptional situations and ratifying new kings. Absolute kings tried to marginalize parliaments, summoning them only in extreme situations.
The End of the Byzantine Empire and the Rise of the Turkish Empire
End of the Byzantine Empire
Originating from the division of the Roman Empire in 395, the Eastern Roman Empire was named Byzantine after its capital, Constantinople. It peaked during Justinian’s reign (527-565), recovering much of the former Roman Empire. Decline began with the rise of Islam. Muslims occupied the Middle East and besieged Constantinople twice. The empire weakened due to religious and political infighting and the diversion of crusades, finally falling to the Ottoman Turks in 1453.
Rise of the Turkish Empire
The Turks, a nomadic people from Central Asia, arrived in the Near East in the 11th century, converted to Islam, and conquered the Holy Land, triggering the Crusades. In the 13th century, the Ottoman Turks began expanding, conquering Byzantine territories and establishing their capital in Brussa. They gradually conquered Balkan territories, reaching the Danube. Successive crusades were defeated. The Byzantine Empire was reduced to Constantinople, which fell in 1453.
Formation of Barbarian Kingdoms and the End of the Western Empire
Germanic peoples created independent kingdoms in occupied territories. Their state form differed from the Roman concept, being groups of free warriors led by an elected chief. Relations with the Roman population were difficult due to racial segregation and religious differences (Arianism).
Significant Germanic kingdoms included:
- Vandal Kingdom (429-534): Established in North Africa, destroyed by the Romans in 534.
- Visigoth Kingdom (419-711): Initially in southern Gaul, then Hispania, destroyed by Muslims in 711.
- Frankish Kingdom: Unified by Clovis, evolved into the Carolingian Empire.
- Burgundian Kingdom (443-534): Conquered by the Franks in 534.
- Ostrogoth Kingdom (493-553): Established in Italy, destroyed by the Romans.
The Western Roman Empire’s definitive end is considered 476 AD when Odoacer deposed the last emperor, Romulus Augustus, marking the start of the Middle Ages.