Monarchies and Unification in 15th Century Europe
15th Century European Monarchies
During the second half of the 15th century, modern national monarchies emerged in Europe, highlighting the power of the sovereign against noble political powers and the theoretical authority of the papacy and the Holy Roman Empire. These monarchies tended to develop unifying efforts, often through alliances against common enemies. For example, France under Louis XI and England under Henry VIII pursued such strategies.
The Spanish Case: The Catholic Monarchs
In Spain, the marriage of the Catholic Monarchs in 1469 marked a significant turning point. This dynastic union of Castile and Aragon did not immediately create political unity, but it did lead to a new common international orientation. Key events included:
- Completion of the Reconquista: The kingdoms of Castile and Leon definitively joined with the Nazari kingdom of Granada. Navarre was incorporated in 1512.
- Defense of Catholicism: Actions were taken against religious minorities, with the intervention of the Catholic Church.
- Discovery of America: The discovery of America in 1492 laid the foundations for future expansion.
- International Policy: The Crown of Aragon consolidated its position in the Mediterranean against French expansionism and sought to halt the progress of the Ottoman Empire.
Dynastic Union: Aragon and Castile
The 1479 union of the crowns was a personal or dynastic union, symbolized by the motto “Tanto monta, monta tanto Isabel como Fernando.” Spain was not a unified political entity but rather a plural state. An authoritarian monarchy emerged, similar to others in Europe. The war against the Nazari Kingdom of Granada extended from 1482 to 1492, involving significant economic and military efforts, including sieges of Malaga and Baza.
In 1512, taking advantage of the instability in the kingdom of Navarre and its alliance with France, the Duke of Alba, under the mandate of Ferdinand, conquered Navarre, which was joined to Castile in 1515.
Organization of the State: Government Institutions
Castile and Aragon did not politically bind, with the sovereign focusing on consolidating authority over individuals and nobles. Key developments in Castile included:
- Consolidation of Royal Authority: Measures from the Cortes of Madrigal (1476) and Toledo (1480) strengthened the crown.
- Creation of the Brotherhood: A military force was established.
- Military Orders: The Crown took action against military orders.
- Centralized Administration: The Council of Castile became the central governing body.
- Royal Control: Royal officials were appointed as magistrates with judicial and administrative powers.
- New Tax Policy: Real estate was reorganized, and the sales tax became substantial.
- Judicial Bodies: Chancillerias were created as courts of second instance.
- National Army: A national army was established.
Crown of Aragon and Navarre
In the Crown of Aragon and Navarre, a pactist monarchy system remained, where the monarch’s power was limited by the laws of each kingdom. Audiences were created in 1494.
Religious Politics of the Catholic Monarchs
Persecution of Religious Minorities
The persecution of religious minorities, particularly Jews, intensified. Although the Jewish community had played a significant role in the political, economic, and cultural development of Castile and Aragon until the 14th century, violent outbursts against Jews had occurred since 1391.