Monarchy and Reform in 18th-Century Europe
Enlightened Despotism
“All for the people, nothing by the people.” Absolute monarchs, influenced by the ideas of the Enlightenment, promoted the rationalization of administration, education reforms, and the modernization of the economy. Key representatives include:
- Charles III of Spain
- Catherine the Great of Russia
- Frederick II of Prussia
- Maria Theresa of Austria
Enlightenment Thinkers and Their Proposals
Social Changes
Enlightenment thinkers opposed stratified society and defended social mobility, equality of origin, and personal merit.
Economic Changes
They opposed mercantilism, which was based on the accumulation of precious metals. Instead, they defended agriculture and productive work, opposed state regulations, and advocated for free trade.
Political Changes
- Montesquieu: Proposed the separation of powers, emphasizing the independence of judges.
- Rousseau: Introduced the idea of a social contract between the ruler and the constitution.
- Voltaire: Defended the need for a parliament to limit the power of the monarch.
The Bourbons: A New Dynasty in Spain
In 1700, Charles II died without an heir. Two candidates emerged for the throne:
- Philip of Anjou: Named as heir by Charles II, he became Philip V of Spain, the first of the Bourbons.
- Archduke Charles of Austria: Supported by most European countries except France.
An alliance between the French and Spanish crowns, known as the Family Compact, was formed. The 18th-century Spanish Bourbons’ legacy includes absolutist monarchy and enlightened despotism.
War of the Spanish Succession
Pretenders
- Philip of Anjou: Supported by Castile and France. He wanted the union of the crowns of Spain and France.
- Archduke Charles of Austria: Supported by most European countries except France. He wanted the union of the Spanish and German empires.
The War
The 1713 Treaty of Utrecht weakened Spain. The war continued in Catalonia and Majorca. Spain ceded Milan, Naples, Sardinia, Flanders, Luxembourg, Sicily, Minorca, and Gibraltar.
Territorial Uniformity
Unification of kingdoms (Castile and Aragon) led to identical administrations. Centralization under the Bourbons, inspired by the French centralized government, was implemented through the Nueva Planta decrees.
- Abolished institutions of Aragon’s Crown.
- Imposed the Castilian administrative system (Cortes).
- New political administration: Provinces ruled by a Captain, municipalities ruled by Corregidores.
- Justice administered by the Audiencias.
- Taxes collected by Intendentes.
The Social Republic (1792-1794)
Causes
The betrayal by the king and the military invasion of Austria led to the revolt of the common people. The Tuileries Palace was stormed, the royal family was imprisoned, and the First French Republic was proclaimed.
Phases of the Social Republic
Girondin Convention (1792-1793)
Led by the bourgeoisie, it introduced universal male suffrage. Louis XVI and Queen Marie Antoinette were executed in 1793. Enemies included absolute monarchies of Europe, which formed a coalition, and counter-revolutionary revolts broke out in France.
Jacobin Convention (1793-1794)
Led by the radical bourgeoisie with the support of most popular sectors. A new constitution was introduced, featuring popular sovereignty and the right to social equality. Social laws were enacted, including price and salary controls, compulsory education, and the sale of church lands. Counter-revolutionary assets were distributed among the poor.
The Committee of Public Safety, led by Maximilien Robespierre, held executive power. A mass levy was enacted to reject the Austrian invasion. The Law of Suspects was introduced to stop conspiracies, imposing a “Reign of Terror.”
The Conservative Republic
Leaders: Moderate bourgeoisie.
Objective: To end the Jacobin “Reign of Terror” and establish a moderate government controlled by the wealthy bourgeoisie.
Measures
- A coup killed Robespierre and his followers.
- A new constitution established a collegial government called the “Directory,” restoring census suffrage.
Opposition
- Aristocracy: Opposed the Directory and wanted to re-establish the monarchy and their privileges.
- Common People: Supported the return of the Jacobins.
- Army: Wanted to control the government and end the political chaos.
Napoleon’s coup d’état in November 1799 ended the Directory and established a Consulate, an authoritarian state controlled by himself.