Monarchy, Enlightenment, and Revolutions: Key Concepts
Key Concepts: Monarchy, Enlightenment, and Revolutions
Absolute Monarchy: Estate society, state intervention in the economy, and the principle of absolute authority.
Enlightenment: Reason and spirit of criticism, opposition to absolute rule, and the use of reason for social progress (Voltaire, Montesquieu, and Rousseau).
Enlightened Despotism: Absolute monarchs who adopted cultural principles of the Enlightenment to modernize their states while rejecting its core tenets.
Liberalism: Opposition to absolutism, claiming sovereignty resided in the people instead of the sovereign (Montesquieu’s theory of separation of powers, Rousseau’s support for democratic ideals).
Critical Stratified Society: The bourgeoisie’s commitment to equality of all men before the law.
Physiocracy: The belief that agriculture was the source of all wealth.
Economic Liberalism: Rejection of state intervention in the economy.
U.S. Independence: The 1776 U.S. Declaration of Independence.
Spanish Succession: The 18th-century Bourbon dynasty, with Felipe V ascending to the throne.
War of the Spanish Succession: France supported Philip V, while Archduke Charles was supported by others. The war ended with the Peace of Utrecht.
Bourbon State: Based on centralism and absolutism. Provinces were created, and Fernando V annulled crown rights and privileges of Aragon.
Economic Reforms of Carlos III: Agricultural modernization, improved communication channels, industrial development, and trade development.
Bourbons Foreign Policy: Revolving around the Family Pacts with France and rivalry with Britain.
Spanish Enlightenment: Cultural and economic development was broad but in some respects resembled little of the French Enlightenment (Feijoo, Olavide, Campomanes, and Jovellanos).
Nation: A body of associates living under common law and represented by the same legislature.
French Revolution (1789)
Causes: Abuse of the monarchy and the estate system, economic hardship, high price of bread, and the convocation of the Estates-General leading to the formation of the National Assembly. The storming of the Bastille (1789) symbolized the revolution. The motto was: Liberty, Equality, Fraternity.
First Constitution (1791): Louis XVI becomes a constitutional monarch.
First Republic (1792): The assault on the Tuileries led to the rise of Robespierre and the Reign of Terror (many guillotines). The Directory (1794-1799) ended with Napoleon’s coup, establishing a consulate, and Napoleon declaring himself emperor.
Napoleon’s Empire:
- France: Restored order, changed the map of Europe, and legalized the principles of the revolution.
- Europe: Military victories, continental blockade against Great Britain, and a new map of Europe.
Fall of Napoleon: After the Russian campaign and the battles of Leipzig and Waterloo.
Post-Napoleonic Era
Congress of Vienna (1814-1815): Led by Austria (Chancellor Metternich), Russia, Prussia, and Great Britain, it aimed at the restoration of the old order.
Restoration Principles: Absolute monarchy, monarchical legitimacy, union with the Church, and the Holy Alliance (union of Christian princes).
Liberalism: Requires a parliament and a constitution.
Nationalism: Rejects the principle of monarchical legitimacy and requires the formation of nation-states.
Revolutions of the 1820s, 1830s, and 1848
1820: Spain and Italy – absolutist uprisings failed. Greece – Nationalist movement succeeded in achieving independence.
1830: Poland and Italy – uprisings against absolutism failed. France – the Bourbon restoration was suspended, and nationalism gained ground. Belgium – achieved independence.
1848: Italy, Hungary, and Poland – Nationalist movements failed. Germany – attempts to establish a unified state failed. France – the Second Republic was overthrown, leading to the Second Empire.