Moral Concepts: Divine, Rational, and Utilitarian Origins
Moral Concepts: Three Main Approaches
1. Divine Command Theory
The first approach is based on divine character, appealing to the existence of one or more gods. This God has revealed their beliefs, and through that revelation, we come to understand what is right and what is wrong. As God told us His will, a creature’s willingness to adhere to God’s will determines their moral compass. This approach assumes a superior being who proclaims what is moral for all, regardless of individual beliefs or religions. It is presented as a law to be obeyed by the faithful.
2. Rational Justification
The second approach seeks rational substantiation for moral principles, appealing to human reason and rationality. One example is Immanuel Kant’s categorical imperative. Kant’s formulation answers the question, “What should I do?” He stated that one should act in such a way that the principle governing their conduct could become a universal law. Ethical behavior, according to Kant, is sustainable if and only if it can be universalized.
3. Utilitarianism
The third approach, utilitarianism, is based on the principle of maximizing happiness. It aims to achieve the greatest happiness for the greatest number of people. John Stuart Mill advocates for this approach, suggesting that what is good is what promotes overall happiness. This approach often coincides with Kant’s, but Kant’s standard does not allow for any exceptions. Kant believes that if something is wrong (e.g., lying), it is always wrong, regardless of whether it might bring about greater happiness. Kantian morality is based on the concept of duty, whereas utilitarianism is based on happiness. Although they may coincide, ethics attempts to justify religion, separating the state from religious influence.
Nietzsche’s Position on the Origin of Moral Concepts
Nietzsche considers classical culture prior to the emergence of major religions. He argues that the word “good” originally served to designate people of the most vital condition. These individuals, strong and vital, coined the term for themselves. They also designated the word “bad” to refer to people with antithetical qualities: the weak, cowardly, and sick. The “good” felt no hatred towards the weak, but believed they were the most qualified to govern. However, the weak began to feel envy and resentment towards the powerful. This resentment led to a desire for revenge, giving rise to legends of a savior who would not favor the powerful but would save the weak.
Nietzsche argues that the belief in an afterlife, where the strong and powerful would be damned and the weak would be saved, emerged from this resentment. This is the origin of the belief in heaven and hell. The weak’s desire to defeat the powerful, and the belief in a paradise and an afterlife, are the result of hatred, not of the soul.
Drawing on classical Greek tragedy, Nietzsche highlights two fundamental principles: the Dionysian spirit, representing the values of life, and the Apollonian spirit, representing reason and order.