Moral Philosophy: Autonomy, Happiness, and Democracy
Moral Philosophy: Key Concepts
Item 9: Morality and Human Action
People are inevitably moral. We imagine possibilities, choose between them, and justify our choices—three stages of moral reasoning. We are not amoral; amorality implies acting automatically without responsibility, like animals. We can act morally or immorally, but not amorally.
1.1 No People Amoral
People are inevitably moral; we imagine different possibilities and justify our choices if we behave as rational individuals. Imagining possibilities, choosing between them, and justifying the choice are three stages of the moral structure that makes people moral. One is not amoral when acting automatically and not owning or being responsible for their actions, like animals. People can behave morally or immorally in relation to certain standards of conduct, but we are not amoral.
2.3 Conditioning and Determination
Conditioning doesn’t negate freedom; it influences our choices. We are responsible for our actions, even if conditioned by temperament, education, or economic status. These factors don’t prevent free action.
3.2 The Concept of Autonomy
Kant argued that we autonomously choose both means and ends. This self-governance is our own law. Our awareness of this law demonstrates our freedom. Freedom is the self-legislation of the will, whether or not scientifically explainable.
Item 10: Happiness and Ethics
2.2 Happiness: Eudaemonism (Aristotle)
Aristotle believed all human activities aim for a final purpose: happiness (eudaimonia). Happiness isn’t merely money or honor; it’s a perfect good, achieved through characteristically human activities, continuously.
2.4 Happiness as Pleasure: Hedonism
Hedonists believe morality stems from seeking pleasure and avoiding pain. Empirical research helps determine which actions maximize pleasure. Not all pleasures and pains are equal; intelligence helps calculate the best means to achieve the greatest pleasure.
Epicureanism
Unlike Stoicism’s emphasis on indifference, Epicureanism values calculated pleasure. A wise person enjoys intense, lasting pleasures with minimal pain, distributing them throughout life. Wisdom combines pleasure calculation and intellect.
3.3 The Ethics of Discourse
People argue about moral standards. We seek to determine which are morally correct. We argue about civil disobedience, wealth distribution, and violence. A serious dialogue requires a genuine desire to find correct rules and understand opposing viewpoints. Otherwise, dialogue becomes absurd.
Item 11: Citizenship and the State
2.1 Citizenship and the State
The concept of citizenship developed in France, England, and America. The modern nation-state protects natural rights. Citizenship links the state (stable organization) and nation. Full members of a state are citizens. Citizenship is a legal status recognized internationally. Nationality is granted at birth (jus soli or jus sanguinis) and can be changed.
Item 12: Legitimacy and Power
2.2 Legitimacy: Domination and Demand
Power influences behavior and imposes sanctions. But power must be accepted—legitimized. Three types of domination exist: charismatic (based on leader qualities), traditional (based on custom), and rational-legal (based on legal procedures).
Table: Types of Domination
| Type of Domination | Basis of Legitimacy |
|---|---|
| Charismatic | Leader’s personal qualities |
| Traditional | Customs and tradition |
| Rational-Legal | Legal procedures |
3.1 House Rules and Classes
Moral standards universally guide human behavior. Laws are established by authorities within political communities, backed by political power.
4.2 The Social Contract Theory
Social contract theory describes a state of nature and explains the need for a state. It doesn’t explain historical origins but provides reasons for accepting a social order.
Item 13: Freedom: Ancient and Modern
1.1 Freedom: Ancient and Modern
The Freedom of the Ancients
In ancient Athens, freedom meant participating in public affairs. This was restricted to male citizens, excluding women, slaves, metics, and those under 30.
Freedom of the Moderns
Modern freedom asserts that every human being has the right to freedom. This stems from natural law theories. Freedom is respecting individual rights, such as freedom of expression. Modern freedom prioritizes individual rights over public participation.
Item 15: Democracy
1.1 Define Democracy
Democracy means rule by the people, but in representative democracies, representatives govern. This raises questions about who constitutes the people, who elects representatives, and the representatives’ responsibilities. Majority rule is central, but its limits vary depending on the issue. Democracy is a political order where legitimate authority resides in the people.
2.1 The Representative System
Protecting individual freedom requires separating powers. The legislature should be elected and accountable. The representative system’s advantage is accountability. Institutional bases include universal suffrage, secret ballot, periodic elections, free competition among candidates, acceptance of majority rule, and freedoms of expression, association, and press, along with education.