Morgenthau’s Realism, International Order, and Thucydides Trap
Morgenthau’s Six Principles of Political Realism (1965)
- Selfish Politics: States primarily act in their own self-interest.
- Autonomous Sphere of Action: Politics operates independently of morality or ethics.
- Self-Interest and Changing Political Reality: Conflicting state interests drive political change.
- Situational Ethics: Ethical considerations are relative to the specific situation.
- Opposition to Ideological Crusades: Nations should not impose their ideologies on others through force.
- Pessimistic View of Human Nature: Governance must account for the inherent flaws in human nature.
International Order vs. International Justice (Bull)
International Order: The pattern of international activity that sustains the fundamental goals of the society of states. This is similar to the concept of an international system, which analyzes leaders, enemies, and rules.
International Justice: Moral rules that confer rights and duties on states and nations, such as the right of self-determination, non-intervention, and equal treatment of sovereign states. Moral values are often secondary to practical considerations.
Goals of Anarchical Society (Bull)
- Preservation of international society: Maintaining order even in anarchy, reflecting a sense of justice.
- Maintaining independence, peace, and secure foundations of social life, including limiting violence.
- Keeping promises (principle of reciprocity): Avoiding invasion between societies.
- Stability of possession through recognition of state sovereignty: The state is the central actor.
Orders in World Politics (Bull)
- Order in Social Life: Good human relations between countries.
- International Order: Order between states within a system or society of states.
- World Order: Order encompassing humankind as a whole.
The Modern State System
A modern state system is autonomous, sovereign, and territorial. States are the basic, irreducible units, lacking a higher anarchic authority and adhering to secular raison d’état. There is a separation between personal morality and political life.
The Peace of Westphalia (1648) ended the Thirty Years’ War, a conflict driven by religious tensions between Protestants and Catholics.
State System: Myth vs. Reality
- Myth: A system of sovereign and equal states, ending the hierarchical aspirations of the Habsburg emperor. Start of secularism, reducing the power of religion, and separating state and church.
- Reality: No formal recognition of a common system of sovereign states. The Habsburgs remained powerful, with the royal family in Austria and Spain (Charles V and Felipe II) controlling vast territories and wielding significant influence over Europe. Religion continued to play a fundamental role in international relations.
The Peloponnesian War (431-404 B.C.)
The war between Sparta (Corinthians) and Athens (Corcyreans) stemmed from the earlier Greco-Persian War. Conflict arose between Athens and one of Sparta’s allies.
Sparta, the dominant power, sought to maintain its position.
Athens, a rising power, expanded its influence through trade.
Sparta perceived Athens’ growing power as a threat, leading to inevitable war.
In the Naval Battle of Syvota (433 B.C.), Corcyra (Corfu) and Corinth clashed. The presence of Athenian warships deterred a Corinthian victory, saving the Corcyrean fleet. Subsequently, Athens besieged Potidaea, an ally of Athens and a colony of Corinth. Sparta formed a coalition of weaker polis to humble Athens.
Ultimately, Sparta won the war.
The Thucydides Trap (21st Century)
Thucydides, an Athenian general during the Peloponnesian War, is considered the father of political and historical realism. He stated, “The rise of Athens and the fear it instilled in Sparta made war inevitable” and “War is a matter not so much of arms, as of money.” This illustrates the security dilemma: one state’s increased security (e.g., military strength) leads other states to fear for their own security, escalating tensions.
According to Tang, factors contributing to the security dilemma include international anarchy, the absence of demonstrably benign intentions, and the accumulation of power.
Graham Allison uses the Thucydides Trap to describe situations where a rising power threatens a dominant power. He draws parallels between the U.S. and China’s relationship and the Peloponnesian War. Conflicts can be resolved through negotiation (accommodation) or war. Allison concludes that war is not inevitable, but accommodation is very difficult.