Motivation and Emotion: Key Concepts and Theories
For hunger, which of the following best illustrates the brain principle *Day-to-day events stir biochemical agents into action”: Food deprivation (dieting) increases ghrelin.
The smell of food, the appearance of food, the time of day, and the presence of other people who are eating all contribute to and regulate the rise and fall of hunger and eating: extra-organismic mechanisms.
The negative feedback systems that regulate and lessen the experience of thirst and inhibit drinking are found in the body’s: Cells Mouth Stomach
—- is the need to be effective in interactions with the environment, and it reflects the desire to exercise one’s capacities and skills and, in doing so, seek out and master optimal challenges.: Competence
—-is triggered by appealing external events and exists as a short-term attraction to an activity;—is a more stable and content-specific attraction to that same activity.: Situational interest, individual interest
Which of the following brain structures is involved in generating pleasure?: medial forebrain bundle
Which of the following is a benefit of extrinsic rewards?: Rewards make an otherwise uninteresting task suddenly seem worth pursuing.
Communicating a psychologically-satisfying explanation as to why a task is worth the other person’s attention and effort represents which of the following autonomy-supportive strategies?: provides explanatory rationales
The advantage that instinct had over the will as a scientific motivational construct was that the instinct, unlike the will: its origins could be identified and traced to a physical substance, one’s genetic endowment.
–is a pooled energy source comprised of all current physiological (biological) Disturbances: Drive
If a teacher gives a child a time-out for teasing a classmate, and then the time-out succeeds in making the child’s future teasing behavior less likely in the future. This example illustrates that the time out acts as a(n): punisher.
Which of the following events increases the future probability of a behavior? : negative reinforcement
According to self-determination theory, what type of motivation explains the student’s effort in school when the student says, “I try so hard so I won’t feel guilty or ashamed of myself.”? : introjected regulation
The primary reason why the instinct failed as a grand theory of motivation was that: It became clear that “naming is not explaining”.
Which of the following is not an assumption of cognitive evaluation theory?: all external events promote intrinsic motivation.
Which of the following statements is true? Extrinsic rewards: Shift a learner’s attention away from task mastery and toward potential extrinsic gains.
The behavioral act of taking out the garbage in order to stop your roommate’s persistent nagging to do so results in—for the act of taking out the garbage. : negative reinforcement
Cellular dehydration causes—thirst, whereas dehydration of the bloodstream leads to– thirst. : osmometric, volumetric
“Targets a prescribed outcome” and “applies pressures” are the two defining characteristics of what type of motivating style? : controlling
Which of the following ways of delivering praise best supports the intrinsic motivation of the other person? Saying: Good job, you improved by 10%.
Which of the following brain structures is most closely associated with the subjective experience of “No, I don’t want to do this.”? : amygdala
Organismic theories of motivation: endorse a person-environmental dialectical framework to understand motivation.
A hunger-stimulating hormone circulated in the blood and detected and monitored by the brain is: Which one of the following is not a “hidden cost of rewards?” Rewards tend to undermine the goal-directed effort.
If a person receives a paycheck for coming to work on time, then the worker becomes more likely to come to work on time in the future. This example illustrates that the paycheck acts as (n): cognitive engagement
Among the following questions, which is considered to be an essential question within motivation study?: What causes behavior?
–act as chemical messengers within the brain’s central nervous system;–act as chemical messengers within the body’s endocrine system.: Neurotransmitters; hormones
The fundamental antecedent to “flow” is the activity must provide its participants with: an optimal challenge.
Which of the following statements best reflects the study of motivation as defined by the idea of dualism”, associated with Thomas Aquinas and Rene Descartes?: Motivation arises from the passions of the body and the reason of the mind
Motivation benefits adaptation because it: Directs attention and prepares action
Which of the following historical figures actively promoted instinct as a grand theory to explain motivation?: William James
Would the following example of a teacher-provided choice be expected to increase the receiving student’s subsequent sense of autonomy and intrinsic motivation: “Sam, for the next hour I want you to read a book, and I have three books here that you might like—A, B, and C. Which one of those three books would you like to read today?”: No, some choices increase autonomy and intrinsic motivation while other choices decrease them; this particular choice is limiting and therefore would not likely increase autonomy and intrinsic motivation.
People fail to self-regulate their bodily appetites for three primary reasons. Which one of the following is not one of those reasons?: People pay relatively too much attention to their long-term goals and relatively too little attention to their short-term goals.
If a person engages in an intrinsically motivating activity and begins to receive extrinsic rewards for doing so, what happens to his or her intrinsic and extrinsic motivations?: intrinsic decreases, while extrinsic increases
What is the best characterization (description) of operant conditioning?: A person performs some action and depending on what happens as a consequence of that action, the likelihood of that same behavior occurring again will either increase or decrease.
–trigger(s) dopamine release and the generation of positive feelings: Stimuli that foreshadow the imminent delivery of reward
A person with high interest in an activity will show greater –than will a person with lower interest in that same task: on-task attention
Which scientific event opened the intellectual door for psychologists to study instinct as a potential grand theory of motivation?: Darwin’s biological determinism
A(n) –is an attractive environmental object that occurs at the end of a sequence of behavior and generally acts to increase the probability that the behavior will recur: reward
According to the— hypothesis, when body weight drops below its in-born homeostatic balance, then increased hunger and increased eating behavior becomes more probable: lipostatic
The study of motivation concerns itself with those processes that give behavior its: energy and direction.
Which of the following brain structures is involved in generating withdrawal motivational and emotional states?: right prefrontal cerebral cortex
Of the following physiological needs, which one is relatively little regulated by intra-organismic mechanisms and relatively largely regulated by extra-organismic ones?: Sex
—-emerges spontaneously from psychological needs and personal curiosities. and innate strivings for growth: Intrinsic motivation
According to drive theory: All of the above
Which of the following statements is true?: all needs energize behavior: but needs differ from one another in how they direct behavior toward different goals
If a person takes an aspirin and the aspirin makes a headache go away, then the person becomes more likely to take an aspirin in the event of a headache in the future. This example illustrates that alleviation of the headache acts as a(n): negative reinforcer.
The motivational construct that arose to replace instincts in the grand explanatory construct was: drive
The Cognitive Mechanism by which plans energize and direct behavior is the: TOTE Unit
An– Expectation is a person’s estimate of how likely it is that he or she can act in a particular way; whereas an— expectation is a person’s estimate of how likely certain outcomes will follow once the person carries out that behavior.: Efficacy; Outcome
The—- component of emotion gives emotion its cognitive or mental aspect.: Feelings
The Dynamics of action model attempts to predict a person’s latency to engage in an achievement-related activity. When —, the individual engages in achievement-related behavior the slowest. That is the person’s latency is very high and they procrastinate: Maf>MS
— Is the most negative, averse emotion: Sadness
Which of the following is not a criteria researchers use to identify an emotion as a basic emotion?: It is expressed more frequently by adults than by infants
The Strong Facial Feedback hypothesis —: Asserts that emotions arise from feedback from facial behavior carried by the trigeminal nerve.
Entity Theorists generally adopt — goals; incremental theorists generally adopt — goals: performance, mastery
Which of the following events combine to instigate the self-verification process: Strongly self-discrepant feedback combines with moderate self-concept certainty.
You might hear a person who is experiencing learned helplessness saying each of the following quotes except; “I failed but it wasn’t my fault”
–is the most prevalent emotion in day-to-day functioning: Interest
The appraisal, “Is this situation relevant to my well-being?”, constitutes a — appraisal: Primary
Discovering and developing the potential of the self shows how — energizes and directs behavior: Agency
The TOTE unit— test, operate, test, exit— is a cognitive mechanism that explains how to energize and direct motivated action: plans
Which one of the following best represents Lazarus’ concept of primary appraisal?: What will happen next?
The following statement expresses a —-: goal orientation,”My goal in this class is to get a better grade than most of the other students.”: performance-approach
According to those who study the functions of emotions, which of the following statements is most true?: There is no such thing as a “bad” emotion.
Which of the following relations represent where a person’s efficacy expectations influence a behavioral sequence?: Self → Action
Which of the following is not one of the four core components of emotion?: significant life event
According to the dynamics-of-action model, achievement behavior eventually ends because: once achievement behavior begins, it tends to consume itself.
The — component of emotion gives emotion its communicative aspect.: social-expressive
People with difficult goals outperform people with easy goals. This is so because people with difficult goals show greater:: effort and persistence.
According to research on the weak version of the facial feedback hypothesis, which of the following conclusions is most valid?: all of the above
A—theory of motivation focuses on mental processes as “springs to action” that energize and direct behavior in purposive ways: cognitive
Which of the following group of theorists would be most likely to agree with this statement: Emotions emanate from subcortical processing and may or may not include cortical involvement.”: biological emotion researchers only
In the discussion on the cognition vs. biology debate on emotion, we concluded that: both views are correct, but they emphasize different aspects of the emotion process
As one strives to attain a goal, taking the time necessary to plan how, when, where, and for how long one will carry out goal-directed behavior: represents the setting of implementation intentions.
Who is the most susceptible to the illusion of control phenomenon?: non-depressives in situations that allow little or no actual control
The psychological meaning of failure for a mastery-oriented individual is: “The more I fail, the harder I need to try.”
Which of the following statements is most accurate?: Together, the cognitive and biological approaches provide a comprehensive picture of the emotion process.
The biggest difference between a self-concordant goal and a self-discordant goal is that a self-concordant goal: reflects interests and core values.
Many people with long-term goals such as “become a doctor” eventually abandon their long-term goal pursuit. The essential motivational problem with long-term goals is that They: provide insufficient opportunity for performance feedback and positive reinforcement.
—motivates defensive behavior. It acts as a warning signal to forthcoming harm.: Fear
The following question represents which motivational construct, “If things start to go wrong during my performance, do I have the resources within me to cope successfully and turn things around for the better?”: Self-efficacy
According to appraisal theories, which emotion would a person experience following these four appraisals of an emotional situation: An important goal was at stake; the goal was lost; another person blocked my goal attainment; and the loss was undeserved/illegitimate?: anger
— are cognitive generalizations about the self that are domain-specific and learned from past experience: Self-schemas
Which of the following statements best reflects an effective implementation intention?: “When I encounter situation X, I will do behavior Y.”
The meta-cognitive monitoring of one’s goal striving and planning within the overall goal-setting process is called: self-regulation
The cognitive foundation underlying personal empowerment is: high self-efficacy.
The construct that functions as a motivational spring to action when the person’s present state of how life is going falls short of the person’s hoped-for ideal state is referred to as: discrepancy
The pessimistic explanatory style has been linked to: all of the above.
People who adopt a mastery, rather than a performance, goal have been shown to show a greater tendency toward each of the following ways of thinking and feeling, except: experience a preference to work on the task by themselves without asking for help, assistance, or information from others.
According to the self-concordant model, when people attain a self-concordant goal, they experience high: need satisfaction.
The experience of cognitive dissonance is psychologically aversive. To reduce dissonance, people often: add a new consonant belief
Which of the following sequence of events best describes Arnold’s appraisal view of emotions?: appraisal –>emotion →action
The illusion of control is an attributional phenomenon that, over time, fosters: an optimistic explanatory style.
Without—feedback, goals can be emotionally unimportant and uninvolving: feedback
Managing the self shows how — energizes and directs behavior: self-regulation
The type of achievement mastery goal associated with incremental thinking is the: mastery goal.
Under the influence of positive affect, people are significantly more likely to: All of the above
In considering how motivation and emotion relate to one another, which of the following statements is most accurate?: emotions function as one type of motive.
According to Lazarus, a—appraisal, which occurs immediately following stimulus exposure, involves an estimate of whether one has anything at stake in the stimulus encounter: primary
According to an attributional analysis of emotion, attributing a negative outcome to an external and controllable cause generates the emotional reaction of: anger.
–is an inherent developmental striving. It is a process of leaving behind defenses and moving toward autonomous self-regulation: Self-actualization
Extraverts generally happier than are introverts because extraverts are: more sensitive to positive feelings and to signals of reward.
Cocaine dependent humans consistently present: Decreased binding to dopamine D2/3 receptors in the dorsolateral striatum.
Which of the following individuals is most likely to experience depression?: immature defense mechanisms and stressful life circumstances.
Which of the following statements is most accurate?: Together, the cognitive and biological approaches provide a comprehensive picture of the emotion process.
Compared to affect stable individuals, affect intense individuals react: overly positive to good events and overly negative to bad events.
Studies on the effects of sensory deprivation on psychological processes showed that exposure to a rigidly monotonous environment led participants to report: All of the above
—theory studies how people satisfy the psychological need for relatedness through the mental representation of, and actual attachments to, other people: Object relations
Neuroticism is to —as extraversion is to—: suffering, happiness
Humanistic theorists emphasize that human beings are motivated to: develop their full potential.
The — a relative insensitivity to inner guides, as individuals prefer to pay closer attention to behavioral incentives, cues, and pressures that exist in the environment: control causality orientation involves
According to Freud, the largest and most important motivational component of the human personality is the: unconscious.
The happiness set point can be explained by individual differences in: Extraversion.
The runs on automatic pilot as it carries out countless computations and innumerable adjustments during acts such as driving a car and playing the piano: adaptive unconscious
According to a cognitive view of emotion, about how many different emotions are there?: an almost limitless number
Compared to people who pursue inner guides like self-actualization, people who devote their lives to the pursuit of the American dream (money, fame, popularity): suffer more psychological distress.
—-is the most negative, aversive emotion. It motivates the person to do whatever it takes to get ride of some troubling set of circumstances: sadness
Which of the following would Maslow classify to be a “growth” need?: self-actualization
—is a personality trait defined by the seeking of varied, novel, complex, and intense sensations and experiences and the willingness to take physical, social, legal, and financial risks for the sake of such experiences: Sensation seeking
The following statement describes —: The individual perceives himself as having characteristics a, b, and e and feelings u, v, and w, but that same person publicly expresses characteristics d, e, and f and feelings x, y, and z: incongruence
The—is an innate capacity to judge for oneself whether a specific experience is growth-promoting or growth-debilitating: organismic valuation process
Validation-seeking individuals strive to: prove their self-worth, competence, and likability
— is potentially the most dangerous emotion, as its functional purpose is to destroy barriers in one’s environment: anger
Which emotion is not associated with an increased rate of neural firing?: anger
If the following five people walked into a room, which of the five is going to be the most sensitive to the potentially rewarding aspects of the environment in that room?: an extravert
—refers to the process of forgetting information or an experience by ways that are conscious, intentional, and deliberate: Suppression
—is defined in terms of the strength with which individuals typically experience their emotions: Affect intensity
— is a hypothetical construct representing the cortical, behavioral, and autonomic mechanisms that govern alertness, wakefulness, and activation: Arousal
Extraverts are happier than introverts in terms of — well-being, but extraverts are not necessarily happier than introverts in terms of well-being: Hedonic, eudaimonic
The fundamental assertion of positive psychology therapy can be summarized as: good mental health requires more than the absence of mental illness.
The brain structure that corresponds best to ego functions and principles is the: neocortex.
— arises from having one’s plans and goals interfered with by some outside force: anger
Which developmental sequence accurately describes mature ego development that progresses from relatively immature to relatively mature? : symbiotic, impulsive, self-protective, conformist, conscientious
The motivation for a person with an autonomy causality orientation revolves around: intrinsic motivation and identified regulation.
Which one of the following best represents Lazarus’ concept of primary appraisal?: Is this event a personal threat?
–motivates defensive behavior. It acts as a warning signal to forthcoming harm: Fear
As an individual learns from parents and peers what behaviors and characteristics are “good and bad” and “right and wrong,” he or she learns—: conditions of worth
When sad, a person is motivated to take the action necessary to overcome or reverse the sense of failure or separation just experienced. This motivational aspect of the sadness emotion illustrates which component of the sadness emotional experience?: sense of purpose
The function of—is rejection to reject some aspect of the environment: disgust
Study of objects relations theory revolves around understanding the motivational significance of people’s: psychological need for relatedness with others.
Motivational and emotional processes frequently operate in parallel with one another such that people commonly want and fear the same thing at the same time. This statement describes: psychodynamics.
The appraisal, “Is this situation relevant to my well-being?”,outcome-driven, constitutes a — appraisal: primary
Quasi-Needs: Ephemeral situationally induced wants that create tense energy to engage in behavior capable of reducing the built-up tension. Such as needing Money at the store, or a bandage after a cut.
Social Needs: An acquired psychological process that grows out of one’s socialization history and activates emotional responses to a particular need-relevant incentive. Such as achievement, affiliation, intimacy, and power.
Origins for Needs of Achievement: Social, Cognitive, and Developmental Influences
Atkinson’s Model: Tendency to Achieve (Ta)= Tendency to Approach Success (Ts) (Ms *Ps * Is) – Tendency to Avoid Failure (Taf) (Man *Pf *If). Ms: Motive to success Ps: the perceived probability of success Is: Incentive Value of Success. Maf: Motive to Avoid Failure Pf: Perceived probability of failure (1-Ps) If: Negative Incentive value for Failure (1-1s).
Dynamics of Actions Model: Instigation (Ts): Approach Tendencies, Inhibition (Taf): Avoidance Tendencies, Consummation: Performing an activity brings about its cessation→ All are streams of Ongoing behavior. {Latency to begin an achievement depends on motive strength. (Ms vs. Maf), Persistence on an achievement task depends on motive strength. (Ms vs. Maf), Switching to a non-achievement task occurs with rising consumption}
3 Conditions that involve and satisfy the need for achievement are Moderately Difficult Tasks, Competition, and Entrepreneurship.
Achievement Goals (Contemp Model): Two Main Achievement Goals—> Mastery Goals (develop one’s competence, make progress, improve the self, overcome difficulties with effort and persistence) & Performance Goals: Prove one’s competence, display high ability, outperform others, succeed with little apparent effort.
Benefits of Adopting Mastery Goals: they work harder, Persist Longer and Perform Better.
Avoidance Motivation & Well-Being: Fear of Failure —> Performance Avoidance Goals —> Low self-esteem, personal control, validity, and psychological well-being. Implicit Theories:
Incremental Theorist: Changeable: Mastery Goals: Utility of effort: Challenging Tasks require high effort.
Entity Theorist: Fixed: Performance Goals: High Effort signals, Low Ability
Plans: Discrepancy. Present state (what is currently going through a person’s life) —> ideal state (how Epson wishes his life was going). When the present state falls short of the hoped-for ideal state, a discrepancy or incongruity is exposed. Discrepancy creates the sense of wanting to change the present state so that it will move closer to the ideal state. Two Types of Discrepancy: D-Reduction: Based on the discrepancy detecting feedback that underlies plans and corrective motivation. ( plan-based on corrective motivation. Reactive deficiency overcoming and reciting around feedback system). D-Creation: Based on a “feed-forward” system and proactively sets a future higher goal. (Corresponds to goal-setting motivation. Is proactive growth pursuing, and revolts around a feed-forward system.)
Incentive: A performance criterion for reinforcement: (A target to aim for usually with an external object to aim for such as money or a high grade).
The Fundamental Importance Feedback acts as a reinforcement or punisher.
Four Factors that Affect Goal Acceptance: 1): Perceived Difficulty of the Imposed Goal: there is an inverse relationship between goal difficulty and goal commitments. 2): Participation In the Goal Setting Process: A negotiated goal with flexibility and give and take facilitates participation and internalization of the goal. 3): Credibility of the person assigning the goal: Trustworthy, knowledgeable supporting likable v. Authoritarian and manipulative 4): Extrinsic Incentives.
Four Predicted Goals of Choice: Ability, Past Performance, Self-Efficacy, Incentives of the ideal, actual and minimal Goal.
Problems with Long-Term Goals: With LTGs, there is a prolonged period of time in which performance goes unreinforced. Therefore, goal commitment can be expected to decrease.
What is the implementation intention?: A 2 2-step process of first setting the goal to then planning how to attain that goal: the purpose of the implementation intention?: It helps to create an Effective goal Setting program of goal-striving
Efficiency Expectation: being able to enact the behaviors one needs to cope effectively with the situation a hand (MOTIVATES BEHAVIOR)
Outcome Expectations: that one’s behavior will produce positive outcomes )or prevent negative outcomes). REGULATES BEHAVIOR:
Self-efficacy: one’s judgment of how well or poorly one will cope with a situation given the skill: translate personal abilities into effective performance. Also known as confidence. (Self Doubt is inverse to Self Efficacy). Emotional Reactions: High Self-Efficacy will allow people to avoid anxiety and depression that comes with failure.
Master Beliefs: The perceived control we thing we have over the prevention of an outcome
Mastery Orientation: Vies feedback of ways of growing and are energize by setbacks and negative feedbacks to work harder and achieve their goal.
Helplessness Orientation: Views Feedback as someone highlighting their weakness. By highlighting their negative feedback, they begin to question themselves and shy/hide away from things because they think they are not good enough.
There are Components of Learned Helplessness: Contingency: the environment will react in a predictive way to a behavior & Cognition: Biases, Attributions and Expectancies & Behavior: Demoralize Coping Behavior
What is contingency?: the environment will react in a predictive way to a behavior
Describe Seligman’s and Mayers experiments? They both conditioned dogs to receive electric shocks, where dogs that could not escape the shocks later failed to try to escape when they had the opportunity, demonstrating how a perceived lack of control can lead to helplessness and depression-like behaviors.
Explanatory Style: Optimistic Explanatory Style: the illusion of control which contributes to self-esteem and promoting optimistic views Pessimistic Explanatory Style: tendency to explain bad events with attributions that are stable and uncontrollable. Associated with academic failure, distress, illness and depression.
Reactance Theory: to reestablish an eliminated or threatened freedom. Both Reactance and Self Efficiency—- based on the idea of loss control
Self-Concept (cognitive structure): An individuals mental representation of themselves: a collection of domain self-schemas.
Self-Schemas: cognitive generalizations about the self that are domain specific and are learned from past experiences. (Long last memories that generalize one behavior based on past experiences).
Consistent Self: Direct behavior to confirm the self-view and to prevent episodes that generate feedback that might discomfort the self-view known as “Crisis-Self-Verification”. (Also is known to associate with people who resonates to yourself).
Possible Self: Self Schemas that doesn’t exist yet but can be motivated to push yourself to full fill that possible self. Possible Selves: Representation of attributes, characteristics, an abilities that the self does not yet possess. (Mostly in Social in Origin, Motivational Role, an important part in how we develop and how we grow, the self as dynamic).
Cognitive Dissonance: a state of tension that occurs when we are holding two sets of beliefs/ self-schemas, that are in contrast of each other, or we behave in a contract that is not in synch of what we think of ourselves. It correlates to Assumptions where people are motivated to justify their actions and that people are not rational but they are rationalizing.
What can raise Cognitive Dissonance: Arousing Situations: New Cognitive behaviors that implies the opposite of an old cognition.
Self Perception Theory: An alternative to Cognitive Dissonance saying that this is another way to change our behavior based on the self-observation of their own behavior. Affect Control Theory: In any given role, not all behaviors are equally acceptable: Identity Confirming behaviors: Fundamental, Sentiment Confirming) & Identity-Restoring Behaviors: Direct our behavior in a way that it maintains or confirms the identity we are originally supposed to have in the context.
Agency: Relates the self to our intrinsic motivation. It reflects our internal goals based on psychological needs of autonomy. (Self-Action and development within: differentiation and integration). Differentiation: Developing this self-schemas designed for certain domains & Integration: Combining all of those self schemas to apply it to ourselves as a whole.
Self-Concordance: Reflects our cores self, such as helping us what to strive for and how we should nurture ourselves. (The base of this is Intrinsic and Self-Identifications) leads to further retainment of further goals (Feeds off itself) : The core self is going to be established via Agency.
4 Components of Emotion: Feelings (Adversive Feelings), Bodily arousal( Lethargy), Social-Expressiveness (overcoming separation/failure) Sense of Purpose- Distinctive sad facial Expression
What are the functions of those Four Components?: Help adapt to the environment. Facilitate social bonding. Guide decision-making and behavior.
How many Emotions are linked to Motivation? A wide range as long as they energize and direct themselves.
Do emotions arise from the Subcortical or Cortical Region? Both but mostly Subcortical are responsible for generating raw emotions. Cortical regions process and interpret emotions.
Which one is more correct in the state of emotions: Biological
What are the Characteristics of Emotions? Ekman’s Basic Emotions: Fear, Anger, Disgust. Sadness, Joy, Interest. Are irate rather than acquired or learned through experience. Are all expressed uniquely, and evoke a distinctive and highly predictable physiological patterned response.
Who Agreed with the Biological Perspective of Emotions? Izard, Ekman and Pankeep
Who Agreed with the Cognitive Perspective of Emotions? Lazarus, Schere, and Weiner.
Plutarch Chicken & Egg model: Emotions have both automatic (biological) and learned (cognitive) aspects. Thus the main point is that both processes are interdependent it highlights the complex interplay between physiological responses and cognitive appraisals in the experience of emotions, suggesting that neither aspect is solely responsible for emotional experiences, but rather they mutually influence each other in the emotional process.
What are the 6 Basic Emotions?: Joy, Sadness, Fear, Anger, Disgust, and Interest/Surprise.
Joy: Function is Reproduction and it facilitates our willingness to engage in social activities.
Sadness: The function is Reunion, it typically arises from experiences of separation or failure. Most Negative Emotion.
Anger: Function is Destruction: A belief that the situation is not as it should be due to unwanted interference. Most Dangerous Emotion
Fear: Function is Protection: Arises from personal interpretation that the situation is dangerous and a threat to well-being. Warning Signal and Motivates Defensive Behavior, Most Diverse Emotion
Interest/Surprise: Function is Orientation: The most prevalent emotion in day-to-day functioning. The Emotion We Experience the Most Throughout the Day!
Disgust: Function is Rejection: The nature of that object is determined by development and culture.
Negative Emotions: Fear, Anger, Sadness and Disgust
Positive Emotions: Interest/Joy/Surprise.
Benefits of Positive Affect in Emotions: Every-day, low-level, general state of feeling good.Pleasurable engagement. Reward-driven, appetitive motivational system, Approach behavior, and Dopaminergic pathways
Negative Affect in Emotions: Unpleasant engagement, Punishment-driven, aversive motivational system, Withdrawal behavior, Serotonergic and noradrenergic pathways
Both of the Affects are? Independent ways of feeling Everyday Moods.
James Lang Theory: Argued that bodily experiences come before emotions rather than their result. Thus emotions arise from and depend on bodily reactions. Stimulus→ Bodily Reaction→ Emotion
What are the 2 key Assumptions of the James Lang Theory: The Body Reacts Distinctly to different emotion-eliciting events? And The Body does not react to events that do not trigger emotions.
How Does the Current Theory Support James Lang Theory: Supports the hypothesis that physiological arousal, accompanies, regulates, and sets the stage for emotions.
What is the Cannon Bar Theory: Emotional Cognitions and feelings are causally independent of physiological arousal and behavior. All happen at the same time
Schachter-Singer Theory: Different emotions may be caused by different patterns of physiological change. However, we identify the emotion based on a cognitive appraisal of all the information
The Facial Feedback Hypothesis: suggests that facial expressions influence emotions by sending signals to the brain that reinforce the corresponding feelings.
What is the difference between the strong facial feedback hypothesis and the weak facial feedback: The Strong Version: Manipulating the face is what caused the expression of emotions. The Weak Version modifies the intensity of the emotion. Either way, each emotion has a differential facial expression
What emotions are associated with a decreased firing rate in the cortex?: Joy
What emotions are associated with an increased firing rate from the cortex?: Interest, Fear and Surprise
What emotions are associated with a neutral firing rate from the cortex?: Anger
What is the rule of appraisal in emotions?: An appraisal is an estimate of the personal significance of the feet. Without the appraisal, we will not have any emotions. And thus Appraisal precedes and elicits emotions.
What emotions rule appraisal? Cognitive or Biological?: Arnold’s appraisal theory emphasizes the importance of cognitive evaluations in shaping emotional experiences
What is the role of the appraisal in the emotional realm?: To evaluate a situation’s significance, determining whether it is relevant, beneficial, or threatening, which then triggers an emotional response.
How would you decrease the appraisal model?: Use cognitive reappraisal, like reframing stressful events.
In Lazarus’ model of appraisal, what’s the difference between the primary and secondary appraisal? Primary: Evaluating if a situation is a threat. Secondary: Assessing available coping resources.
According to appraisal theory, what follows the secondary appraisal?: Emotional and behavioral responses.
What are the attributes that are associated with the basic emotions?: While each specific emotion has a unique pattern of appraisals associated with it, the pattern of appraisals for many emotions may overlap (e.g.) guilt and shame have similar appraisal patterns
Are neurotics happier than non-neurotics?: Non-neurotics are happier than neurotics
Why are Neurotics Unhappy?: Greater capacity than emotionally stable individuals to experience negative emotions; stronger and more sensitive Behavioral Inhibition Systems (BIS)
What tendencies do Neurotics Have?: Greater Avoidance behavior and energized by the BIS
What about intro/extroverts?: Extroverts are more Happier than Introverts and are more sensitive to rewards
In Happiness Hedonic is: (the totality of one’s pleasurable moments)
In Happiness Eudaimonic is: (self-realization; engaging in meaningful pursuits and doing what is worth doing)
How does arousal contribute to Motivation?: Arousal levels are influenced by environmental stimulation, with people seeking to increase arousal when underaroused for better performance and decrease it when overaroused to improve performance.
What mood state would be aroused by the major inhibitory system?: Calm or Relaxed Mood State
What is Heron’s Sensory Deprivation Study?: The brain and nervous system prefer a continual and moderate level of arousal generated by environmental stimulation.
Overstimulation/Arousal Leads to Emotional Disruption, Cognitive Disruption and Physiological disruption
The personality characteristics that control the happiness Segway?: extraversion, optimism, and emotional stability
which controls unhappiness Segway: neuroticism, pessimism, and emotional instability,
Different types of happiness?: Hedonic: Pleasure-based. And Eudaimonic: Purpose-based.
Personality construct helps explain individual differences in happiness: Personality constructs like extraversion, neuroticism, and conscientiousness explain individual differences in happiness by influencing emotional experiences and coping strategies.
What kind of behavior would be activated from the behavioral system? : Approach-oriented behaviors, such as seeking rewards, pursuing goals, and engaging in social interactions, are driven by positive emotions like excitement or desire.
What kind of behavior would be activated by the inhibitory system?: activates Avoidance-oriented behaviors, such as withdrawal, restraint, and relaxation, driven by negative emotions like fear, anxiety, or stress, to reduce arousal and prevent harm.
What personal topography is most sensitive to the rewarding aspects of the environments /punishing aspects?: Extroversion
How would you define sensation seeking?: Sensation seeking is the tendency to seek out novel, intense, and stimulating experiences, driven by the desire for excitement, adventure, and a heightened level of arousal. : Related to Arousal and Reactivity. Related to the extent to which a person’s central nervous system requires change and variability
What are some of the biochemical correlates to sensation-seeking: Low MOA levels, Low Serotonin Levels, High Dopamine Levels
What does perceived control do: The pre-performance expectancies of possessing the needed capacity to produce positive outcomes
What is the Desire for Control?: The extent to which individuals are motivated to establish control over the events in their lives.The extent to which they strive to make their own decisions etc.
What’s the main subject matter of psychoanalysis: The main subject matter of psychoanalysis is the exploration of the unconscious mind, including repressed memories and desires, and how these influence behavior, thoughts, and emotions, with a focus on the dynamics of the id, ego, and superego. adopts a rather pessimistic view of human behavior.
What personality characteristic will determine the amount of effort and engagement?: conscientiousness
What do we call the mental clashing of the force and counterforce of will: psychic conflict
What are the different types of unconscious that we spoke about Freudian Unconscious, Preconscious, Collective Unconscious, and Implicit Unconscious
What are the different stages of ego maturation?: Infancy, Early Childhood, Latency, Adolescence, Adulthood
How do psychodynamics apply to motivation and emotion?: It emphasizes the role of unconscious processes, internal conflicts, and early childhood experiences in shaping behavior and emotional responses
What brain structural system may correlate to the ID and EGO: ID: Subcortical Regions/ Limbic System such as the Hypothalamus and the Amygdala & Ego: Prefrontal Cortex/ Neocortal Cortex such as Learning, Memory, and Decision Making.
What is the difference between suppression and repression?: Suppression: The process of removing a thought from attention in ways that are conscious, intentional, and deliberate. & Repression: The process of forgetting information and an experience in ways that are unconscious, unintentional, and automatic.
Repression is the Ego—?: Ego Counterforce to the id’s demanding desires.
Ego Effectance Model: the individual’s innate drive to master and competently interact with their environment
What is object relations theory about how early relationships and the internalized images of caregivers shape an individual’s interactions, emotional responses, and perceptions of others throughout life
What is the major purpose of humanistic psychology: to understand and promote personal growth, self-actualization, and the inherent potential for individuals to lead fulfilling, meaningful lives by focusing on positive aspects of human experience.:
Comparing people who strive for self-actualization v. Extrinsic factors one is going to suffer more psychological stress: Extrinsic Factors are going to suffer more psychological stress because of external pressures and the pursuit of external validation.
How would you define self-actualization: Self-actualization is the process of realizing and fulfilling one’s potential, achieving personal growth
How many of us have achieved self-actualization: is considered a rare and ongoing process, and few individuals are believed to fully achieve it. According to Maslow, only a small percentage of people reach this state
What is the basic tenant of holism: holism is that the whole is greater than the sum of its parts, meaning that systems and behaviors should be understood as a whole rather than by breaking them down into individual components.
Maslow hierarchy: what are needs and deficiencies: Needs: Physiological, Safety, Love and Belonging, Esteem and Deficiencies: Self-Actualization
What’s the organismic evaluation process: The organismic evaluation process refers to the way individuals assess and evaluate their environment, experiences, or situations concerning their own needs, goals, and well-being.
How does an individual learn support?: social interactions and relationships that provide emotional, psychological, and practical assistance
How would you define incongruence: Incongruence refers to a mismatch or lack of alignment between an individual’s self-concept (how they perceive themselves) and their ideal self
What causality orientation is sensitive to environmental factors: Environmental causality orientation refers to individuals who are more influenced by external factors or circumstances when making decisions and guiding their behavior.
What are the different theories of addiction?: Biological, Psychological, Behavioral, Cognitive-Behavioral, SocioCultural, Social Learning and the Biopsychosocial Model
What is the long-term biological consequence of addiction: neuroadaptation, which refers to the brain’s structural and functional changes due to prolonged substance use. Over time, addiction can alter the brain’s reward system, particularly affecting the dopamine pathways.
Describe behavioral economics elastic vs. inelastic spending: elastic spending refers to significant changes in spending when prices or income change, while inelastic spending occurs when spending remains relatively stable regardless of price or income fluctuations, often applied to necessities.
What the matching hypothesis: The matching hypothesis suggests that people are more likely to form relationships with others who are similar to them in terms of physical attractiveness, social status, or other characteristics
What’s the hedonic hypothesis: Anhedonic hypothesis posits that the pursuit of pleasure and the avoidance of pain are central to human motivation and well-being. Stimuli → response→ positive outcome (dopamine release)
Difference between hedonic and eudemonic? Hedonic is about pleasure and happiness, while Eudaimonic is about purpose and personal development.
Which one is more likely to be expressed by an extrovert/introvert, hedonic or eudonic?: Extrovert –> Hedonic and Introvert–> Eudaimonic
What is emotional contagion?: Emotional contagion is the automatic and unconscious process by which individuals mimic and share the emotions of others, facilitating emotional synchrony and social bonding.
Disease Model: Predisposition Disease: Addiction is an inherited disease. Some individuals are more likely than others to develop addictions. Drug Exposure Disease: Addiction caused by Drug Use.
Physical Dependence Model: Compulsive Drug Seeking is an attempt to avoid negative withdrawals. Cons: Does not explain compulsive behavior, individual differences, and relapse.
Incentive Sensitization Theory of Addiction: Based on Sensitization of Dopamine. Repeated Presentation of stimulus. Associated Stimulus acquires greater incentive salience. Stimuli (dopamine release) → response→ positive outcome
Inverted U-Hypothesis: there is an optimal level of arousal for peak performance, where moderate arousal enhances performance, but too little or too much arousal can lead to a decline in effectiveness
Frued Dual-Instinct Theory: Thantanos: aggression toward self, (leads to self-criticism, depression, sadism, masochism. Eros: sex instincts, nurturance.
Level of Arousal associated with Pleasure:: Moderate Arousal, which involves a healthy environment.
Affect Intensity: Affect intensity refers to the stable individual difference in the strength or intensity with which people experience and respond to emotions, with high affect intensity individuals experience stronger emotional reactions and greater mood variability compared to those with low affect intensity
Contemporary psychoanalysis emphasizes: the motivational importance of psychological wishes, rather than biological drives.
Contemporary psychodynamic theory is based on four postulates: Much of mental life is unconscious, and Mental processes operate in parallel to one another. We frequently want and fear the same thing, Ego development and Mental representations of self and others form in childhood and guide adult social motivations.
What feeds into Arousal: Arousal level is mostly a function of how stimulating the environment is.
Wish Model of Motivation: Neither sex nor aggression conforms to a physiological model of drive. It fits poorly into the homeostasis models. Thus instinctual drive is dropped as a central motivational construct and replaced with Psychological Wish.
Three Contemporary Views of the Unconscious: Freudian Unconscious: (MOST IMPORTANT THINGS IN FUREDS THEORY CALLES THE “PRIMARY PROCESS” Mental Storehouse of inaccessible instinctual impulses, repressed experience, childhood pre-language and unfulfilled desires.
Biological Standpoint: Positive emotions are left prefrontal cortex & Negative emotions: the right prefrontal cortex
Positive Psychology: uses empirical methods to understand what makes life worth living. The goal is to is to show what actions lead to experiences of well-being. Devotes attention to the proactive building of personal strengths and competencies. Seeks to make people stronger and more productive, and to actualize the human potential in all of us
Self-Actualization: Autonomy→Greater mindfulness, Courage to create, Realistic Appraisals. Openness: Self-Realization
Themes of Maslow’s Hierarchy: The lower the need is in the hierarchy, the stronger and more urgently it is felt. The lower the need is in the hierarchy, the sooner it appears in development. Needs in the hierarchy are fulfilled sequentially from lowest to highest.
Actualizing Tendency: innate, a continual presence that quietly guides the individual toward genetically determined potentials. Motivates the individual to want to undertake new and challenging experiences
Organismic Evaluation Process: Innate capability for judging whether a specific experience promotes or reverses growth. Provides the interpretive information needed for deciding whether the new undertaking is growth-promoting or not
Congruence/Incongruence = The extent to which an individual accepts/rejects the full range of their characteristics, abilities, desires, and beliefs.
Fully Functioning Individual: Emergence, Acceptance and Expression
Causality Orientation: Autonomy Causality Orientation: Relies on internal guides (e.g., needs, interests), Pays closer attention to one’ s own needs and feelings, Relates to intrinsic motivation and identified regulation, and Correlates with positive functioning. Control Causality Orientation: Relies on external guides (e.g., social cues), Pays closer attention to behavioral incentives and social expectations, and Relates to extrinsic regulation and introjected regulation.
The Problem of Evil: Humanistic Theorists View: Evil is not inherent in human nature. Evil arises only when experience injures and damages the person. Both benevolence and malevolence are inherent in everyone. Human nature needs to internalize a benevolent value system before it can avoid evil.
Emotions activate and energize biological systems: ANS→Endocrine system→ Activation of specific neural pathways→ Facial feedback
Describe Arnold’s appraisal theory. : Arnold’s appraisal theory emphasizes the importance of cognitive evaluations in shaping emotional experiences, highlighting that emotions are not just automatic responses but are significantly influenced by how we interpret and evaluate our circumstances.
What’s the relationship between appraisal and coping behavior? : whether as a threat or a challenge—determines the coping strategies they employ, influencing how they regulate their emotions and respond to stressors, while also creating a feedback loop where coping outcomes can affect future appraisals.
What do we experience more of, moods or emotions? : Emotions since moods can last for days