Mughal Architecture: History, Characteristics, and Examples
Mughal architecture is a type of Indo-Islamic architecture developed by the Mughals in the 16th, 17th, and 18th centuries throughout their ever-changing empire in the Indian subcontinent. It evolved from the architectural styles of earlier Muslim dynasties in India and from Iranian and Central Asian architectural traditions, particularly Timurid architecture. It also further incorporated and syncretized influences from wider Indian architecture, especially during the reign of Akbar. Mughal buildings have a uniform pattern of structure and character, including large bulbous domes, slender minarets at the corners, massive halls, large vaulted gateways, and delicate ornamentation. Examples of the style can be found in modern-day Afghanistan, Bangladesh, India, and Pakistan.
The Rise of Mughal Architectural Patronage
The Mughal dynasty was established after Babur’s victory at Panipat in 1526. During his five-year reign, Babur took considerable interest in erecting buildings, though few have survived. His grandson Akbar built widely, and the style developed vigorously during his reign. Among his accomplishments were Agra Fort, the fort-city of Fatehpur Sikri, and the Buland Darwaza. Akbar’s son Jahangir commissioned the Shalimar Gardens in Kashmir. Mughal architecture reached its zenith during the reign of Shah Jahan, who constructed the Taj Mahal, the Jama Masjid of Delhi, the Shalimar Gardens of Lahore, and renovated the Lahore Fort. High-ranking officials below the emperor were also able to build major monuments, as with the example of the Wazir Khan Mosque. The last of the great Mughal patrons was Aurangzeb, who built the Badshahi Mosque, Bibi Ka Maqbara, Moti Masjid, etc. Mughal emperors and elites consciously used architecture as a way to publicly display their presence and power. The extensive architectural patronage of the Mughals was made possible by their considerable wealth, which exceeded that of other contemporary Muslim empires like the Ottomans and Safavids. In the Indian subcontinent, more monuments survive from the Mughal period than any other period. Major monuments of this time include mosques, mausoleums, palaces, gardens, and fortresses.
Influences and Stylistic Development
Mughal architecture was derived from three main architectural traditions: local Indo-Islamic architecture, the architecture of Islamic Persia and Central Asia, and indigenous Hindu architecture. Because earlier Indo-Islamic architecture already borrowed from both Hindu and Islamic architectural styles, certain influences in Mughal architecture can be difficult to attribute to one source or the other. With regards to Hindu architecture, local Rajput palaces were likely a key influence. Early Mughal architecture developed from existing Indo-Islamic architecture while following the model of Timurid architecture (based in Central Asia), due in part to the Timurid ancestry of the Mughal dynasty’s founder, Babur. By the late 16th century, a more distinctive Mughal tradition emerged based on the combination of these two sources. Under the reign of Akbar (r. 1556-1605), the use of Hindu architectural elements was especially prolific, including in high-profile construction projects like Fatehpur Sikri. During his reign in particular, non-Muslims were present among the highest-ranking officials and were able to become patrons of architecture as well. The most notable example is Raja Man Singh, a Hindu amir who built both Hindu temples and Muslim mosques and shrines. Under Akbar’s successors, there was a shift towards more typically Islamic architectural designs. During the reign of Shah Jahan (r. 1628-1658), a “classical” Mughal style was consolidated and remained essentially in use until the end of the Mughal period. A certain level of stylistic consistency was achieved throughout the empire at this period thanks to the role of a central department of architects, similar to the imperial architects that existed in the Ottoman Empire.
Key Characteristics of Mughal Architecture
Mughal architecture is distinguished by an elegant style in which careful linear divisions of spaces and surfaces took priority over the more three-dimensional combination of elements that distinguished earlier Indo-Islamic architecture. The use of color was also relatively restrained, with emphasis instead on finishing surfaces with high-quality, polished materials. Bulbous domes and ogive arches were among the most prominent recurring elements. In addition to domes and arches, the local tradition of trabeate construction also continued, especially in secular architecture like palaces. Another distinguishing characteristic was the use of red sandstone as a building material, along with white marble. This replaced the prominence of brick in earlier Indo-Islamic architecture, though construction materials still varied depending on the region. Sandstone is a very hard material, but local Indian stonemasons were skilled in carving it with intricate detail, which was another distinguishing feature of the Mughal style. White marble was initially used as a cladding to complement and finish the look of sandstone buildings, as in Humayun’s Tomb, but later it was used on a grander scale to cover entire buildings, as in the Taj Mahal. Brick was sometimes still used for domes and arches, but in these cases, it was usually faced with plaster or stone as a finish.
Gardens and Early Mughal Structures
The architectural patronage of Babur, the first Mughal emperor, is mainly known for its terraced gardens. These gardens, often established in palaces and citadels, were modeled on the Persian chahar bagh (“four gardens”) type, in which gardens are geometrically divided into different plots, usually four equal parts. This type followed Timurid antecedents, though the use of water channels as linear dividers may have been a Mughal innovation. Babur himself was initially buried at Agra, but in 1644 his tomb was moved to one of his favorite gardens in Kabul, now known as the Gardens of Babur. Some of the architectures Babur created in present-day India include Aram Bagh in Agra, Lotus Garden in Dholpur, and more. In religious architecture, Babur’s mosques also followed the designs of earlier Timurid mosques, with a tall central entrance portal (pishtaq), a courtyard, and a prayer hall covered by a large central dome flanked by side aisles covered by smaller domes. An example of this is his mosque at Panipat.
Agra Fort
Agra Fort is a UNESCO World Heritage Site in Agra, Uttar Pradesh. The major part of Agra Fort was built by Akbar from 1565 to 1574. The architecture of the fort clearly indicates the free adoption of Rajput planning and construction. Some of the important buildings in the fort are Jahangiri Mahal, built for Jahangir and his family, the Moti Masjid, and Mena Bazaars. The Jahangiri Mahal has a courtyard surrounded by double-story halls and rooms.
Humayun’s Tomb and the Tomb of Salim Chishti
Humayun’s Tomb is the tomb of the Mughal Emperor Humayun in Delhi, India. The tomb was commissioned by Humayun’s first wife and chief consort, Empress Bega Begum (also known as Haji Begum), in 1569-70, and designed by Mirak Mirza Ghiyas and his son, Sayyid Muhammad, Persian architects chosen by her. It was the first garden-tomb on the Indian subcontinent. It is often regarded as the first mature example of Mughal architecture. The Tomb of Salim Chishti is famed as one of the finest examples of Mughal architecture in India, built during the years 1580 and 1581. The tomb, built in 1571 in the corner of the mosque compound, is a square marble chamber with a verandah. The cenotaph has an exquisitely designed lattice screen around it. It enshrines the burial place of the Sufi saint, Salim Chishti (1478 – 1572), a descendant of Khwaja Moinuddin Chishti of Ajmer, who lived in a cavern on the ridge at Sikri. The mausoleum, constructed by Akbar, was a mark of his respect for the Sufi saint, who foretold the birth of his son.