Napoleon, Middle East Conflicts, and the European Union: A Historical Analysis
Napoleon and the French Revolution
Napoleon and the Revolution: The Revolutionary legacy for Napoleon consisted above all in the abolition of the ancient regime. Napoleon was “modern” in temperament as well as destructively aggressive. But in either guise, he was an authoritarian. His concept of reform exaggerated the Revolution’s emphasis on uniformity and centralization. Napoleon also accepted the Revolutionary principles of civil equality and equality of opportunity. Napoleon terminated the Revolution, but at the price of suppressing the electoral process and partisan politics. France was merely a launching pad for Napoleon’s boundless military and imperial ambition, its prime function being to raise men and money for war. Militarism became the defining quality of the Napoleonic regime. Napoleon’s ambiguous legacy helps explain the dizzying events that shook France in 1814 and 1815. Even before Napoleon’s abdication, the Imperial Senate had begun negotiations with the allies to ensure a transition to a regime that would protect the positions of those who had gained from the Revolution and the Napoleonic period. Louis XVI was allowed to return as King Louis XVIII, but he had to agree to rule under a constitution (called the Charter). Napoleon slipped back to France for a last adventure, while Louis fled the country. Between March and June 1815, a period known as the Hundred Days, Napoleon again ruled France. At the Battle of Waterloo (June 18, 1815), British and Prussian forces defeated Napoleon’s army decisively, and he abdicated again a few days later. But in the final analysis, Napoleon’s impact on future generations was not nearly as powerful as the legacy of the French Revolution itself.
The Middle East Conflicts After World War II
After World War II, the Jewish people wanted to have a land of their own. The circumstances of the moment made it possible. But things have not been, and are not now, easy.
Main Conflicts
First Arab-Israeli War
The day after the announcement, six Islamic states, Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, Syria, Lebanon, and Saudi Arabia, declared war on Israel and invaded it. The war ended in a few months with the victory of Israel. Three other wars were to follow in 1956, 1967, and 1973.
The 1956 Suez Crisis
Egypt seized control of the Suez Canal. The UK, along with France and Israel, decided to retake the canal. In a quick movement, Israeli troops defeated the Egyptians. But Israel had to yield under international pressure, so they withdrew from Egypt. The canal was again in Egyptian hands.
The Six-Day War, 1967
In early 1967, Nasser and his Arab allies decided to fight Israel again. He wanted to close the Gulf of Aqaba. In six days, the Arab states were defeated. The losses were much greater on the Arab side. Israel took control of the old city of Jerusalem, the Sinai Peninsula, the Golan Heights, and the West Bank. Palestinians living in Jerusalem were given the choice of being Israeli or Jordanian citizens. The rest of the Palestinians living on Israeli-controlled lands could only be Israeli.
The Yom Kippur War, 1973
The following Egyptian president, Anwar Sadat, planned a joint attack on Israel. The Israelis were caught by surprise, suffered heavy casualties, and lost part of the land they had taken in 1967. Their prime minister launched a counterattack and regained most of the lost territory. A truce was signed after several weeks of fighting.
The Palestine Liberation Organization
In 1964, Palestinian officials formed the PLO to push for the formation of a Palestinian state. They claimed that the only way to achieve their goal was through armed struggle. The chairman was Yasir Arafat. They carried out lots of attacks on Israel and got support from some of the neighboring countries, which allowed the PLO to operate from their lands.
Efforts at Peace
In 1977, President Sadat extended a hand to Israel. None of the Arab countries had ever recognized the right of Israel as a state, but Sadat visited the Israeli Parliament and talked about peace. In 1978, US President Jimmy Carter invited both Sadat and the Israeli prime minister to the presidential retreat. After some days, Carter could announce that Egypt recognized Israel as a legitimate state. This is known as the Camp David Accords, signed in 1979. A group of Muslim extremists assassinated Sadat in 1981. The following leader, Hosni Mubarak, continued to work to maintain peace with Israel.
The European Union
The European Union is composed of 28 European countries. Some of the EU’s members are: Austria, Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus, the Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, Greece, Hungary, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, and the United Kingdom. The EU was created by the Maastricht Treaty. The treaty aimed to improve European political and economic integration by creating a single currency, a unified foreign and security policy, common citizenship rights, and by advancing cooperation in immigration, asylum, and judicial affairs. The origins of the EU must be found after WWII. The EEC (European Economic Community) created a common market which would eliminate most barriers to the movement of goods, services, capital, and labor. Four institutions were established: a commission, a Council of Ministers, an assembly, and a court. In 1973, the United Kingdom, Denmark, and Ireland were admitted. In 1981, Greece joined, and in 1986, Portugal and Spain became members. The European Regional Development Fund was a means to encourage the development of economically depressed areas. The name of the EEC was changed to the European Community, the main component of the new EU. In 1995, Sweden, Austria, and Finland joined the EU. The policies and institutions of the EU were revised in the Treaty of Amsterdam. In 2004, the EU was joined by ten countries: Cyprus, the Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Malta, Poland, Slovakia, and Slovenia. Romania joined in 2007 and Croatia in 2013.