Napoleonic Empire and the Congress of Vienna
The Napoleonic Empire (1804-1815)
Napoleon Bonaparte was crowned Emperor in 1804. His reign was characterized by significant political actions, both domestically and internationally.
Domestic Affairs
The Civil Code was established, enshrining individual freedom, guaranteeing private property, and affirming the equality of all citizens before the law. Significant reforms in education were also implemented.
Foreign Policy
Napoleon expanded his empire across Europe, challenging various coalitions of European powers. France defeated Austria, Prussia, and Russia. However, Great Britain remained undefeated, leading Napoleon to impose the Continental Blockade. Napoleon’s troops were eventually defeated in 1813. The armies of the anti-Napoleonic coalition entered France in 1814, leading to Napoleon’s exile and the restoration of the Bourbon monarchy. Napoleon briefly returned to power during the Hundred Days’ Empire but was ultimately defeated in Belgium in 1815.
Implications of the French Revolution and Napoleonic Empire
- The triumph of Enlightenment ideas led to the dismantling of the social and political structures of the Old Regime.
- The King transitioned from holding absolute power to becoming a constitutional monarch, acknowledging national sovereignty.
- Constitutions were approved, defining, for the first time in history, the rights and obligations of both rulers and the ruled, and organizing state power.
- The bourgeoisie attained the political power they had long sought, displacing the nobility.
- Independence movements began to emerge in Latin American colonies, influenced by the success of the French Revolution.
- The expansion of French troops fostered nationalist movements in occupied countries.
- The fall of Napoleon did not signify the end of revolutionary ideals; new waves of revolution spread across much of Europe in the 1820s, 1830s, and 1840s.
The Congress of Vienna and Restoration
The United Kingdom, Austria, Prussia, Russia, and France met at the Congress of Vienna (1814-1815) to restore monarchical legitimacy over popular sovereignty and re-establish the balance of power among European nations.
Principles of Restoration
- The Principle of Legitimacy: Restoration of the dynasties of the Old Regime.
- Principle of Balance: Ensuring a balance of power among the major nations.
- Intervention Principle: The powers committed to intervening in any country where a revolutionary outbreak occurred.
Russia, Austria, and Prussia signed a pact called the Holy Alliance. The United Kingdom did not adhere and proposed the creation of the Quadruple Alliance (Russia, Prussia, Austria, and the UK) to curb any expansionist movements.
The New Map of Europe
The new map of Europe that emerged from the Congress of Vienna had the following features:
- Belgium and Holland were united into a single kingdom (the Netherlands).
- Italy remained divided, with continued Austrian presence in the Kingdom of Lombardy-Venetia.
- France was returned to its 1792 borders.
- A confederation of 39 German states (the Germanic Confederation) was created.
- Prussia gained Rhineland.
This new map of Europe was imposed for only a few years.
Liberalism
Liberal Principles
- National Sovereignty: Power resides in the people, who delegate it to their representatives in Parliament through an electoral system.
- Separation of Powers: The legislative, executive, and judicial branches cannot be held by the same person or group of people.
- Promulgation of a Constitution: A document embedding the fundamental principles governing a country, including the freedoms and rights of citizens.
- Freedoms: Certain rights that citizens should possess, including freedom of conscience, expression, press, assembly, and association.
- Natural Rights: Rights possessed by every human being by virtue of their existence and, in turn, as citizens.
The liberal revolutions continued to shape Europe after the Napoleonic era.