Napoleon’s Impact and Colonial Revolutions
Napoleon Bonaparte
In 1799, Napoleon spearheaded a coup, deposed the government, and established the Consulate. He became First Consul in 1802, was proclaimed Consul for life, and in 1804 crowned himself Emperor of France. He led successful campaigns against Russia, Spain, Austria, and Prussia. In 1814, the French were defeated by the Russians, and in 1815, finally at Waterloo.
During Napoleon’s reign, the ideas of the 1789 revolutionaries spread across Europe, including the separation of church and state and extended civil rights to Protestants and Jews. He created the Civil Code (or Napoleonic Code), proclaiming equality before the law and guaranteeing private property rights.
Impact on Europe: The abolition of noble and clergy privileges, serfdom, feudal obligations, and the separation of church and state were promoted.
Impact on America: Napoleon’s offensive in Spain led to the establishment of a regency council, whose authority was not recognized in America. This spurred the creation of autonomous governments and strengthened the desire for independence among those opposed to the Spanish trading system.
Crisis in Spain
Spain largely rejected the new government imposed by Napoleon. Interim boards were formed in Spanish cities, claiming to govern on behalf of the captive King Ferdinand VII. In 1808, the army organized by the Seville board defeated the French at the Battle of Bailén. In 1810, the Regency Council was created in Cádiz.
Political Movements in Latin America
Early 19th Century Changes
La Paz (1808)
Several revolts in La Paz (Upper Peru) were suppressed by royalist troops from Lima and Buenos Aires.
Caracas (1810)
A provisional junta was established, assuming authority in the name of Ferdinand VII. In 1811, a congress declared Venezuela’s independence. However, Creole leaders failed to gain rural support, and royalist forces defeated the revolutionaries in 1815.
Bogotá (1810)
A revolutionary junta led by the Viceroy was formed. Divisions among Creoles (centralists vs. federalists) allowed royalists to defeat the revolutionaries in 1815.
Chile (1810)
Creoles, rejecting the Viceroy of Peru’s authority, organized a government in Santiago. In 1814, royalists defeated the rebels at Rancagua, arresting or exiling revolutionary leaders.
Mexico (1810)
Father Miguel Hidalgo led an indigenous peasant rebellion against colonial rule, demanding independence, abolition of taxes, and the liberation of slaves.
Creoles sought autonomy or independence, challenging Spanish authority and rejecting Napoleon’s power.
Colonial Order
In 1806 and 1807, British forces occupied Buenos Aires, leading to economic and political consequences. Free trade strengthened Creole criticisms of the Spanish monopoly and demands for trade freedom. New Creole urban militias were formed, highlighting Spain’s weakness. Viceroy Sobremonte fled during the first invasion, and the Buenos Aires council appointed Santiago de Liniers as Viceroy.
British Invasions
Implications
- Weakening of Spanish authority
- Rise of Creole militias as a political force
- Strengthening of calls for free trade
First Invasion
Viceroy Sobremonte fled. British General Beresford governed and enacted free trade. Liniers organized the defense with Buenos Aires militias and was appointed Viceroy.
Second Invasion
Liniers and Alzaga defended the city and expelled the British. Militia leaders were democratically chosen.
Causes: British naval dominance made communication difficult.
In the late 18th century, King Charles III implemented the Bourbon Reforms, centralizing power, expelling the Jesuits, and liberalizing trade by changing the fleet system and opening ports.