Napoleon’s Legacy, Revolutions, and Unifications in Europe
Napoleon’s Legacy in France
Pacification of the Country: Eliminating the most radical factions and encouraging the return of the exiled nobility. The most important internal reform occurred in 1804 and was based on revolutionary principles. These measures led to Napoleon being elected First Consul for life in 1802 and Emperor in 1804.
Napoleon’s Fall
- Exiled: Island of Elba
- Monarchy Re-established: Louis XVIII
- Escape: Restored to power for 100 days
- Defeat at Waterloo (1815): Exiled to Saint Helena, died in 1821
Napoleonic Empire
1805-1815 Victories: Austerlitz, Ulm, Jena, Eylau, Friedland, and Wagram.
Restoration and Liberalism
Restoration After Napoleon’s Defeat
Great Britain, Austria, Prussia, and Russia tried to restore absolutism and rebuild the map of Europe.
Liberalism
Despite the return to absolutism, liberalism proclaimed individual freedom. It stood against absolute monarchy and unfair social divisions, demanding constitutions.
Revolutionary Waves
1820
Liberal, anti-absolutist movements in Spain and Portugal. Monarchs had to accept constitutions, but absolutist regimes were established again.
1830
Charles X was replaced by Louis Philip of Orleans (constitutional monarchy). The revolutionary wave extended. Once in power, liberals became conservatives.
1848
Second Republic.
Nationalism
A radical ideology. The nation is a community that shares the same traits (culture, language, history). Most prominent in territories under foreign control.
Unification of Italy
Nationalistic Groups
Young Italy and Carbonari group.
Process of Unification
First, Victor Emmanuel annexed the Kingdom of Lombardy.
Unification of Germany
Germanic Confederation
39 states presided over by Austria.
Causes of Revolutionary Waves
The old models of government, society, science, and economics were obsolete.
Drastic Changes
- Absolute monarchy → more participative forms of government
- Middle class → Strongest force in society
- Developments in sciences → discoveries
- Primarily agricultural economy → Urban economy (Industrial Revolution)
Outbreak of the American Revolution
At the end of the 18th century, the 13 North American Colonies started a war to obtain independence from Great Britain. Colonists were unhappy because they didn’t have representation in the British Parliament. The spark that started the revolution was a raise in taxes. In 1773, a new tax was imposed on the export of tea.
Creation of a New State
On July 4, 1776, representatives of the 13 colonies met in Philadelphia to draw up a declaration of independence and create the United States of America. It also recognized the equality of the right to life. (Great Britain didn’t recognize this decision). Finally, the British were defeated, and the Treaty of Versailles (1783) recognized the independence of the USA. A constitution was established in 1787 (the first).
Causes of the French Revolution
Ideological Causes
The ideas of the Enlightenment had spread in the second half of the 18th century, and the revolution in the USA was an example of those ideas.
Social and Economic Causes
- Nobility and clergy had lost political power.
- Nobility had financial difficulties.
- Middle class had no political influence.
- The peasants suffered from raised taxes.
Estates General: Ancient assembly of representation that hadn’t been called since 1614, but the financial crisis in France necessitated it.
Critics of Absolutism
- Voltaire (1694-1778): Did not believe in God. Against slavery. Restricted monarchs (more power to parliament).
- Montesquieu (1689-1775): Supported aristocracy. Defended the constitution. Need for individuals to be protected. Separation of powers.
- Rousseau (1712-1778): Rules should follow the opinion of the people. Legislative power belongs to the people.
Enlightened Reforms in Spain
They Promoted:
- Enlightenment Ideas: Promoted enlightened reforms from intellectuals (Jovellanos, Aranda, Floridablanca, Campomanes).
- Political: Absolute monarchy (helped by secretary).
- Social Reforms: Nobility was no longer incompatible with work. Jesuits were expelled. Colonization of Sierra Morena.
- Economic:
- Agriculture: New crops and new irrigation systems. Land was controlled by the church.
- Industry: Royal factories were produced, and industry was modernized.
- Internal Commerce: New infrastructure was built.
- External Commerce: Freedom of trade between Spanish parts of America.
{1700 PHILIP V 1746 Ferdinand VI 1759 Charles III 1788 Charles IV}