Napoleon’s Reign, Congress of Vienna, and Bourgeois Revolutions
The Reign of Napoleon: Consulate and Empire
The period of Napoleon’s reign is divided into the Consulate (1799-1804) and the Empire (1804-1814/15).
Consulate (1799-1804)
A powerful set of political objectives was established, and power was concentrated in the hands of the First Consul, Napoleon Bonaparte. Under a new Constitution, Napoleon held extensive legislative and executive powers. He did not mention human rights and ruled as a dictator. He reorganized the entire structure of the state, maintaining the departmental system, but officials were appointed through a centralist policy. Public education was organized and used as a tool for propaganda, with the state controlling education. The Civil Code established the basic rules of class society: equality before the law, civil marriage, and private property. To resolve religious problems, the Concordat was signed with the Church in 1801. This agreement recognized the dominance of the state, with the power to appoint bishops residing with Napoleon, while the state supported the clergy.
Empire (1804-1815)
In 1804, Napoleon established himself as Emperor and later pursued aggressive and imperialist policies. By 1812, Napoleon controlled most of the European continent. However, the failed invasion of Russia and the combined power of European nations against him led to his abdication in 1814. Despite the Napoleonic invasion and the restoration of absolutism in Europe, Napoleon returned to power for a period known as the Hundred Days’ War. His final defeat came at the Battle of Waterloo in June 1815, after which he was exiled to the island of Saint Helena.
Congress of Vienna
After the defeat of Napoleon, several powers convened at the Congress of Vienna to restore the previous state of affairs. The objectives of the Congress were to reinstate the Old Regime and achieve lasting peace. The main proponent of these objectives was Metternich.
Key Decisions:
- The Principle of Legality: The only legitimate political authorities were those based on tradition, history, and religion. Following this principle, King Louis XVIII was restored in France and Ferdinand VII in Spain.
- Balance Between States: No single state was to hold a dominant position.
- Intervention Policy: The signatory powers were granted the legitimacy to intervene in other states, even in internal affairs, if events threatened the foundations of the new European order.
To ensure the implementation of these decisions, two mechanisms were established:
- Holy Alliance: An alliance formed by Russia, Prussia, Austria, and France.
- Regular Meetings: Meetings between the signatory powers.
Despite efforts to return to the Old Regime, many states did not revert to their former structures. Several new ideas promoted by the revolution were implemented in Europe, starting in 1820.
Bourgeois Revolutions
The 19th century witnessed three waves of bourgeois revolutions:
1820 Revolutions
- Main Influences: Liberalism, Greek independence, Nationalism.
- Locations: Spain, Two Sicilies (Italy), Greece.
- Successes: Spain, Two Sicilies, Greece (independence).
- Failures: Spain (due to intervention by the Holy Alliance to restore absolutism).
1830 Revolutions
- Main Influences: Liberalism, Nationalism (Belgium).
- Locations: France, Belgium, Italy, Germany, Poland.
- Successes: France, Belgium.
- Failures: Italy, Germany, Poland (suppressed).
1848 Revolutions
- Main Influences: Nationalism, Liberalism.
- Locations: France, Russia, Italy, Germany, Czechia.
- Successes: France.
- Failures: Russia, Italy, Germany, Czechia.
- Note: These revolutions marked the first steps of nationalism in Germany and Italy.
Liberalism
Liberalism is a direct consequence of the Enlightenment, a bourgeois ideology that emerged in the late 18th century. It is based on political and economic freedom.
Key Principles of Liberalism
- Freedom: Development of trade and industry.
- Private Property: Protection and increase of private property.
- Equality: Implementation of equality before the law.
- Constitutional Rights: Guarantee of rights and duties through treaties in the constitution.
- Separation of Powers: Distribution of powers to create a public authority.
- Suffrage: Citizens choose their representatives through suffrage in Parliament.