Nationalism and Labor Movements in 19th-Century Europe
The Rise of Nationalism in 19th-Century Europe
The nation emerged during the wars of the French Revolution and the Napoleonic Empire. Divisive nationalisms succeeded in Belgium, which seceded from the Netherlands, and Greece, which became independent from the Ottoman Empire.
Unifying Nationalism – Italian Unification
1st Phase
Victor Emmanuel II of Savoy led the unification process with the help of Cavour. He allied himself with France to fight against Austria. Austria was defeated, leading to the annexation of Lombardy, Parma, Modena, and Romagna to Piedmont. The Italian parliament was then created.
Stage 2
Cavour, with the support of Garibaldi, joined Sicily. Garibaldi took advantage of peasant unrest and sent a thousand Red Shirts to Sicily. Sicily, the Marches, and Umbria were incorporated into the kingdom of Piedmont. In the new parliament, Victor Emmanuel II was recognized as king of Italy.
Stage 3
Only the Papal States and Veneto were missing. The war of Prussia and Italy against Austria resulted in the Austrian defeat. Austria ceded Venice to Italy. Rome was united with Italy and proclaimed the capital of the new state after the French defeat at Sedan. The Pope did not recognize the annexation, raising the Roman issue, which was not resolved until the Lateran Treaty created the state of the Holy See.
Unification of Germany
Prussia led the process of German unification.
1st Phase
The German states formed a customs union to promote economic cooperation. Prussia was the leading German state and sought to lead the unification process. Bismarck was appointed chancellor of Prussia and intervened in the crisis of the duchies from Denmark.
Stage 2
Prussia faced Austria, which was occupied with the rebellion of the Italian states under its control, enabling Bismarck’s invasion of the Austrian duchy. The defeat of Austria materialized in the annexation and the creation of the Confederation of North Germany.
Phase 3
Bismarck signed an alliance with the southern German states. Napoleon III was opposed to their annexation by Prussia. France’s defeat at Sedan led to Germany annexing Alsace-Lorraine, a territory that was the cause of dispute with France until the First World War. Thus, the Second German Empire was born, whose king was William I.
Ideological Foundations of the Labor Movement
Utopian Socialism
Marx believed these thinkers failed because they did not address the social struggle between employers and workers. They pursued an ideal and perfect society where peaceful solidarity, philanthropy, and brotherly love prevailed. They also defended the developments of modern industry.
- Saint-Simon emphasized that society was based on industry and formed a technocracy to ensure the life of the poorest.
- Fourier proposed the formation of cooperatives (phalansteries) that were centers of agriculture and industry, but they eventually failed.
- Owen implemented measures to improve living conditions, reduced hours of work, and better wages, but ultimately failed. His work influenced the development of cooperatives, trade unionism, and mutualism.
Marxist Socialism
Developed by Karl Marx, it analyzed the contradictions of the capitalist system. Class struggle was the engine of social change, and social relations determined the structure of each stage of the evolution of humanity, called modes of production. Added value is the basis of capitalist accumulation. Marx postulated the violent conquest of power by the proletariat to replace the capitalist system with one without classes and private property, and the transformation of the bourgeois state into a dictatorship of the proletariat, leading to a communist society. Marxism was the ideological base of revolutionary movements.
Anarchism
Anarchy means without authority. Bakunin advocated rebellion against capitalist society and the state. It aimed at the immediate and total destruction of the bourgeois social order and the state. While Marxists advocated the need to conquer the state, anarchists called Marxists authoritarian and centralist, while defining themselves as anti-authoritarian and federalist.
Origins and Development of the Labor Movement
Precedents
The first workers’ organizations were fraternal societies. The Prime Minister promoted the Combination Laws, which forbade any association for employment purposes. These laws were in force until repealed by Parliament. One law allowed free association. Luddism was one of the most prominent stages of the labor movement, emerging as a rejection by textile industry workers who were threatened with losing their jobs.
Unionism in the United Kingdom
An incident was the Peterloo Massacre, where protesters gathered in an orderly and peaceful petition for the repeal of the Corn Laws. The army fired into the crowd, and the repression produced a solidarity movement. This pushed the government to legalize workers’ associations. The law unleashed union activity, and strikes were legal. It was not a crime to belong to workers’ associations. There were some attempts to form a union association. Owen founded the Great National Consolidated Trades Union, but it disappeared. This failure caused Chartism, which demanded universal suffrage rights derived from the People’s Charter, a document submitted to Parliament. It had six points, including requests for workers and the petty bourgeoisie. Their pleas were rejected, and the latest manifestation in London gave way to the solution for fear of contagion of democracy in the February Revolution in France. The failure of Chartism led the union movement toward peaceful methods and negotiation.
Syndicalism in France
Workers’ associations were formed by artisans who worked in construction. These associations persisted and gradually ceded their place to trade unions, which were illegal and acted in defiance of law and authority. The legal prohibition continued until Napoleon III abolished restrictive laws, but only if the association was “temporary.” Labor unions were authorized on a permanent basis and did not receive their full legal recognition until the Associations Act of 1884.
Unionism in Germany
It developed slowly, and three types of unions were distinguished:
- Socialist unions: The largest and most influential.
- Liberal trade unions: Wished to imitate the English model.
- Christian unions: Questioned the social order and sought harmony between employers and workers.
The union movement was tolerated but was not legal until 1918.
Syndicalism in Spain and Italy
The movement was delayed and was associated with the beginnings of industrialization. The first movements imitated Luddism. There were numerous disputes, but it was not until the revolution of 1868 that the partnership law was approved. Full recognition did not occur until the 1887 Law on Associations.