Nationalism and Unification: Germany and Italy 1848-1871
The Expansion of Nationalism in Europe (1848-1871)
Between 1848 and 1870, two dynamic forces reshaped the map of Europe: the competition among continental powers for hegemony and the rise of nationalism in stateless nations, particularly Germany, Italy, and Poland.
France: Diplomacy in the Era of the Second Empire
In 1851, the President of the Republic, Louis Bonaparte, staged a coup d’état and was proclaimed Emperor Napoleon III, establishing the Second Empire. The Bonapartist regime was a blend of liberalism and order, built on dynastic inheritance and an aggressive foreign policy. Between 1851 and 1870, Napoleon III intervened in numerous crises between the great powers:
- 1854-1856: Participated in the Crimean War to limit Russian expansion in the Black Sea.
- 1859: Intervened in Italy, initially supporting Piedmont but later withdrawing before the completion of Italian unification.
- 1861-1867: Attempted to establish Mexico as a satellite of the French Empire.
- Simultaneously, he laid the foundations for the expansion of French Indochina.
- 1866: Supported Prussia against Austria.
- 1870: Jealous of growing Prussian hegemony, he declared war on Prussia, leading to the downfall of his empire after the French defeat.
The Unification of Germany
After the failed revolutions of 1848, German nationalism was divided into two factions:
- Proponents of a “Greater Germany,” centered around Austria, the traditional seat of the Holy Roman Emperor.
- Advocates of a “Lesser Germany,” led by Prussia, the largest Protestant power, excluding Austria.
Prussian Chancellor Otto von Bismarck, a champion of the “Lesser Germany” vision, achieved unification through a series of wars:
- The Second Schleswig War (1864): Prussia and Austria fought against Denmark for control of the German-speaking duchies of Schleswig and Holstein.
- The Austro-Prussian War (1866): Prussia decisively defeated Austria, demonstrating its military superiority and achieving the unification of northern Germany.
- The Franco-Prussian War (1870-1871): An incident concerning the candidacy for the Spanish throne led France to declare war on Prussia. Prussia, with the support of other German states, decisively defeated France. Napoleon III surrendered at the Battle of Sedan, and the Prussians invaded France.
The peace treaty was signed in 1871. The King of Prussia was proclaimed Kaiser (German Emperor) at the Palace of Versailles. The Second German Reich, a federal empire, was established. Germany annexed the German-speaking French provinces of Alsace and Lorraine.
The Unification of Italy
The Italian unification was complex due to Austria’s occupation of the northeast and the presence of the Papal States, forcing nationalists to challenge the Pope’s temporal power. The Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia, under King Victor Emmanuel II, spearheaded the nationalist movement, with Prime Minister Camillo Benso di Cavour as the chief architect of unification. The process unfolded in several stages:
- War against Austria (1859): Piedmont, with French support, liberated Lombardy but failed to gain Venetia.
- Nationalist uprisings in the duchies of Parma, Modena, and Tuscany, as well as in parts of the Papal States, led to their annexation by Piedmont.
- 1860: An army of volunteers led by Giuseppe Garibaldi conquered the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. Piedmontese forces invaded Umbria and the Marches.
- With most of the peninsula under his control, Victor Emmanuel II was proclaimed King of Italy in 1861.
- 1866: Italy allied with Prussia in the Austro-Prussian War and gained Venetia.
- 1870: Taking advantage of the Franco-Prussian War, Italian troops entered Rome. Pope Pius IX, in protest, declared himself a “prisoner in the Vatican.”
In the decades following unification, Italy faced several challenges:
- The economic disparity between the industrialized north and the agrarian south.
- The “Roman Question,” a dispute over the sovereignty of Rome between the Pope and the Italian government, complicated political life.
- Difficulties in establishing a colonial empire in Africa.