Nationalism and Unification: Germany, Italy, and Britain

Nationalism and Unification in 19th Century Europe

Liberal movements faced suppression from conservative forces, yet the old order could not be fully restored. Monarchs recognized the need to grant concessions to liberal nationalist revolutionaries to prevent societal unrest. Serfdom and bonded labor were abolished in both Habsburg dominions and Russia. In 1867, Hungarians gained greater autonomy.

Unification of Germany (1866-1871)

In 1848, middle-class Germans attempted to unite the German Confederation into a nation-state under an elected parliament. However, these efforts were repressed by the monarchy, the military, and landowners in Prussia. Prussia then took the lead in national unification. Otto von Bismarck, the chief minister of Prussia, was instrumental in this process. After three wars over seven years against Austria, Denmark, and France, Prussia emerged victorious, completing the unification of Germany.

On January 18, 1871, the new German Empire, headed by Kaiser William I, was declared in the Hall of Mirrors at the Palace of Versailles. This unification established Prussian dominance in Europe. The new empire focused on modernizing its currency, banking, and legal systems.

Unification of Italy

Italy had a long history of political fragmentation. In the mid-19th century, it was divided into seven states. Only Sardinia-Piedmont was ruled by an Italian princely house. The North was under Austrian Habsburgs, the center under the Pope, and the South under the Bourbon Kings of Spain. The Italian language also lacked a stable form due to various dialects.

During the 1830s, Giuseppe Mazzini formed a program for uniting Italy and created the secret society, Young Italy. After the failed uprisings of 1831 and 1848, King Victor Emmanuel II of Sardinia-Piedmont sought to unify the Italian states. Count Cavour, the chief minister of Sardinia-Piedmont, led this movement. In 1859, Sardinia-Piedmont, with French support, defeated Austrian forces. Many people, led by Giuseppe Garibaldi, joined the movement. In 1860, Sardinia-Piedmont’s forces marched into southern Italy, driving out the Spanish rulers. In 1861, Victor Emmanuel was declared king of a united Italy, with Rome as its capital.

Britain as a Nation

Prior to the 18th century, Britain was not a nation-state. Primary identities were based on ethnicity, such as English, Welsh, Scottish, or Irish. The English nation gradually extended its influence over other nations and islands. In 1688, England established itself as a nation-state, with the English parliament seizing power from the monarchy. In 1707, the United Kingdom of Great Britain was formed through the Act of Union between England and Scotland. England dominated Scotland and Ireland in all spheres, and the British Parliament was dominated by English members.

In 1801, Ireland was forcibly taken by the British after the failed revolution led by Wolfe and his United Irishmen in 1798. A new ‘British Nation’ was formed with symbols such as the British flag (Union Jack), the national anthem (‘God Save Our Noble King’), and the English language.

Visualizing the Nation

Artists of the 19th century personified the nation in female form. Female allegories, such as those of liberty, justice, and republic, were created. In France, the idea of a people’s nation was represented by Marianne, characterized by liberty and republic. In Germany, Germania became the allegory of the nation.