Neoclassicism and Romanticism in Art and Architecture
Neoclassicism in Architecture
Neoclassical architecture rejected Rococo ornamentation and drew inspiration from Greek, Etruscan, Roman, and even Egyptian art. Religious architecture declined, and public buildings like libraries, museums, and arcades were constructed. Napoleon’s propagandistic spirit emulated Roman architecture (e.g., the Arc de Triomphe in Paris). Neoclassicism also thrived in Germanic territories. In England, the Classical Renaissance persisted and was exported to the American colonies.
Neoclassical architects believed that a new social order required a new urban order. They integrated their projects into urban reform plans, aiming to create cities that resembled ancient ones in terms of monuments while also addressing social development and functionality. Churches were built as classical temples, alongside schools, hospitals, markets, customs houses, ports, streets, and squares. Sculptors and painters contributed statues, ornaments, and historical representations to inspire citizens.
Two distinct lines emerged within Neoclassicism: one that retained Baroque elements, emphasizing power and authority but simplifying ornamentation (e.g., the Pantheon in Paris, the Berlin Opera House, the Puerta de Alcalá in Madrid), and another that was functional, minimalist, and sometimes symbolic, representing the true architecture of reason. Both lines served the revolutionaries’ vision of a new society.
In contrast to the Baroque ideal of virtuoso technique, Neoclassicism valued rigorous technique. The true artist was the one who could design and execute projects using tools that were part of society’s culture. This technical and practical approach minimized the importance of individual artistic flair.
Neoclassical Painting
Jacques-Louis David’s painting, The Oath of the Horatii, exemplifies Neoclassicism’s focus on Rome. Unlike Baroque or Rococo compositions, it features a simple arrangement of figures in a state of calm, reminiscent of ancient statues. Neoclassical painters lacked readily available models of ancient painting, relying instead on architecture and sculpture. They turned to reliefs and ceramic vase decorations for inspiration.
Jacques-Louis David (1748-1825) was a leading figure in Neoclassical painting, reflecting the era’s emphasis on logical and clear composition. He aligned his art with revolutionary ideals. Under Napoleon, David became court painter, and his work adopted a more emotional tone while avoiding Romanticism.
Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres (1780-1867) was another prominent Neoclassical painter. As director of the Ecole des Beaux-Arts, he championed David’s tradition.
Neoclassical Sculpture
Neoclassical sculpture, like painting, drew heavily on the past, particularly with the abundance of excavated artifacts and existing collections. Sculptures were typically made of white marble, without polychromy, reflecting the belief that ancient sculptures embodied the noble simplicity and serene beauty that Winckelmann had identified in Greek statuary.
Antonio Canova, known for works like the Monument to Pope Clement XIV, Venus and Psyche, and Hercules and Lichas, was a prominent figure in Neoclassical sculpture. Other notable sculptors included John Flaxman and Bertel Thorvaldsen. Neoclassicism also reached the United States, albeit later, as seen in the sculptures of William Henry Rinehart.
Romanticism
Romanticism emerged as a reaction against Neoclassicism, prioritizing feeling over reason. It embraced nationalism, liberalism, originality, creativity, and imperfection in art. Key characteristics of Romanticism include:
- Emphasis on personal experiences and individualism
- Focus on national identity (Volksgeist)
- Rebellious figures as protagonists (e.g., Don Juan, the pirate, Prometheus)
- Rejection of traditional rules and conventions (e.g., Aristotelian unities)
- Exploration of nighttime, gloomy settings, and the fantastic (sinestrisme)
- Interest in popular literature and regional languages
- Nationalism as a response to French cultural dominance
- Expansion of language and style beyond Neoclassicism
- Medieval and artistic themes as inspiration
- Emphasis on instinct and emotion over rationality
- Evocation of the past and escapism
- Themes of sadness, melancholy, solitude, and discontent
- Desire for individual freedom and the expression of passions
Romanticism challenged the rationalism of the Enlightenment and Neoclassicism, celebrating the subjective and emotional aspects of human experience.